The Advancement of the Internet Technology

Information technology is said to be playing an important role in various sectors in a particular society these sectors may include the financial institutes, research institutes, learning institutions and other development sectors globally.The invention of the internet as a mode of communication has made every development successful since most of the developments require skills of using the internet and computers at large.It is therefore through the internet services provided that enhance the success of the people’s access on the present public service, library services and even marketing through the internet which globally referred to as the e-commerce.Research indicates that currently information is processed using computers and disseminated to the recipients through the internet, this internet technology is found to have improved the peoples understanding of information in many sectors of development.This idea brings in the advantage of using the internet technology to many people who are provided with material information on the electronic formats that have proved to be easy to get, revise, read and understand.Also this information is stored in large quantities which make it cheap and simple for the interested party in getting the specified to get it at once, compared to the process of going to libraries and reading a lot of books in order to get the required information (Connor, 1999)Therefore, for one to access the information provided on the internet the user is expected to enter an inquiry on the web form that is provided, after which it is sent to the web server, the web server then sends the question to the index server cluster which is meant to match the inquiry with the available documents.The match is then sent to the document server cluster that plays the role of retrieving the documents so that it can generate the abstracts and the copies of the information that is cached. Then finally the document is displayed by the web server to the use r where he is enabled to get the information required.This advancement of using the internet has basically enabled individuals to have a better access to good resources of the needed information. Research shows that by the use of computer technologies, preferable learning materials such as journals, newspapers, books and many academic articles can be obtained through the internet.This access to information through the internet is found to be the most important factor in many organisations, whereby individuals   have the sanction to store the retrieved materials using devices of storage.Such as flash disks and diskettes which enable them to retrieve and use the data easily compared to the early years where people used to keep so many books in their bookshelves and when the individual requires a particular information he was forced to through the whole lot of books s that he gets the information needed, this method actually proved to be time wasting and tiring . (Parries and Jeffay, Dec.2002)Under this technological advancement, we find that there are many developed web sites that are meant to allow many people to get access to many expanded sites that have new approaches of information regarding their area of interest.An example of these sites is the Google website, which is recognised globally and it is also said to be among the best search websites providing search services for the customers who are interested in getting particular websites; research indicates that google is the leading service provider to both the individuals and its customers applying the internet technology in their daily activities. (Knupfer and Muffoletto, 1993)  This google websites is specialised in the use of hypertexts, which is used where there have been an interest of putting the written literature into a computerised text that usually involve hypertext editing; through this we find that the text is always organised in a manner that particular initials are assigned to particula r literature matching with the users requirements for the resources According to research we find that.There are almost over two hundred thousand computer networks of the google company   which are spread all over the world, allowing many people to access it. Besides accessing files on other computers within the organization, an individual can run software located on all the computers that are enabled with the software.This therefore makes communication among the people easy and efficient, for this case we find that the hypertext matching analysis is always put in mind when the fillings of a particular information is being stored.The characteristics of a particular page such as the title, the font style and its content are proved to be very crucial in the matching of the hypertext. The other method used by google is the scalable core technology which was created with an objective of performing calculations for over ten thousand servers globally. (Knupfer and Muffoletto, 1993)Googl e has enabled its technology in finding the complex files through which the use files which do not occur by the use internet formats an example of such formats are the Microsoft word, the post script formats, rich texts among others.The services also offer a number of solutions to particular problems like the misspelling of words in the questions provided; this is actually used to enable the searching easier. (Parries and Jeffay, Dec.2002)The internet technology has brought in the use of electronic mail technique, which has brought an extreme change in the modes of communication.Here, we find that the costs that are always incurred when an individual conducting a particular research are reduced since moving round, calling through telephony technology and even writing letters to reach a person who may be having information on a particular topic of interest are avoided. The internet allows an individual to communicate to a number of people at the same time. (Connor, 1999)

Environmental Toxicology

Introduction to Environmental Toxicology A lecture by Dr Rick Leah (Long version of Notes prepared by Dr R T Leah, Biological Sciences, University of Liverpool but including material summarized and adapted from various locations on the www*) Aims The impact of toxic chemicals on wildlife and humans has been of great concern for the last fifty years. Unfortunately this is a very large, complex subject area which can only be covered superficially within the time available.However, this lecture is intended to give an introduction to fundamental aspects of how some pollutants interact with living organisms to cause deleterious effects. The complexity will be explained and simplified where possible. You should understand at least a little about the biology of key organisms and how pollutants cause damage at a physiological level. You should be aware of how pollutants can induce change in organisms which can be used as a ‘biomarker’ of the presence and action of the pollutants (although this will form the subject of a later lecture in this course).Thus as the main outcome of this lecture you should have an appreciation of the wide range of contemporary issues that are caused by toxic chemicals in the environment and what regulatory authorities are doing to monitor and control them. You should understand the main hazards that toxic chemicals pose and how risk to humans and wildlife is controlled. You should be aware of the main groups of pollutants of contemporary concern.The material covered will be useful for the consideration of two case studies on the impact of toxic chemicals in the Great Lakes of North America and the Baltic Sea in later lectures. [pic] Environmental Toxicology or Ecotoxicology? [pic] Introduction It was after World War II that increasing concern about the impact of toxic chemicals on the environment led Toxicology to expand from the study of toxic impacts of chemicals on man to that of toxic impacts on the environment. This subject became known as Environmental Toxicology.Ecotoxicology is a relatively new discipline and was first defined by Rene Truhaut in 1969. It attempts to combine two very different subjects: ecology (â€Å"the scientific study of interactions that determine the distribution and abundance of organisms† Krebs 1985) and toxicology (â€Å"the study of injurious effects of substances on living organisms†, usually man). In toxicology the organisms sets the limit of the investigation whereas Ecotoxicology aspires to assess the impact of chemicals not only on individuals but also on populations and whole ecosystems.During the early years, the major tools of Environmental Toxicology were: detection of toxic residues in the environment or in individual organisms and testing for the toxicity of chemicals on animals other than man. It was however, a very big jump in understanding from an experimental animal to a complex, multivariate environment and the subject of ECOTOXICOLOGY develop ed from the need to measure and predict the impact of pollutants on populations, communities and whole ecosystems rather than on individuals.There is an on-going debate as to the exact scope and definition of ecotoxicology. The simplest definition found to date is that ecotoxicology is â€Å"the study of the harmful effects of chemicals upon ecosystems† (Walker et al, 1996). A more complete definition of Ecotoxicology comes from Forbes & Forbes 1994 â€Å"the field of study which integrates the ecological and toxicological effects of chemical pollutants on populations, communities and ecosystems with the fate (Transport, transformation and breakdown) of such pollutants in the environment†. nd several books have been written recently which discuss this in some depth, these include: Cairns, J Jr & Niederlehner B R (1994) Ecological Toxicity Testing. CRC Press Inc: Boca Raton Forbes, V E & Forbes T L (1994) Ecotoxicology in Theory and Practice. Chapman & Hall Ecotoxicolog y Series 2: London. Walker C H, Hopkin S P, Sibly R M & Peakall, D B (1996) Principles of Ecotoxicology. Taylor & Francis: London There are three main objectives in ecotoxicology (Forbes & Forbes 1994): †¢ obtaining data for risk assessment and environmental management. meeting the legal requirements for the development and release of new chemicals into the environment. †¢ developing empirical or theoretical principles to improve knowledge of the behaviour and effects of chemicals in living systems. (More information about the highlighted terms used below can be found in the Definitions section. ) In order to achieve these objectives, the main areas of study are: The distribution of POLLUTANTS in the environment, their entry, movement, storage and transformation within the environment.The effects of pollutants on living organisms. At an individual level, TOXICANTS may disrupt the biochemical, molecular and physiological structure and function which will in turn have conseq uences for the structure and function of communities and ecosystems. At the population level it may be possible to detect changes in the numbers of individuals, in gene frequency (as in resistance of insects to insecticides) or changes in ecosystem function (e. g. soil nitrification) which are attributable to pollution.It may be possible to use BIOMARKERS to establish that a natural population has been exposed to pollution and these can provide a valuable guide to whether or not a natural population is at risk or in need of further investigation. For the purposes of the Regulation and Registration of chemicals the toxicity of individual chemicals is principally investigated via TOXICITY TESTING, the main tool of which is the Standard Toxicity Test (STT) which usually tests the DOSE or CONCENTRATION of a particular chemical that is toxic to under controlled, laboratory conditions.Toxicity tests are mainly carried out using individual animals although there has been a move towards the use of more complex systems known as MESOCOSMS. In some situations, particularly in the case of pesticides, it may be possible to carry out FIELD TRIALS to assess toxicity. Toxicity data are used to make assessments of the HAZARD and the RISK posed by a particular chemical. [pic] Significant Issues with Chemicals that have driven the development of Ecotoxicology [pic] 1. DDT – around the world 2. Cadmium in Japan 3. Mercury in Japan 4. PCBs in Japan and Taiwan 5.Dioxins – various 6. The contamination of pristine environments (eg Arctic) by atmospheric transport of organohalogens Most workers in the field of ecotoxicology refer to the publication of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1962) as a landmark in the public’s awareness of potential damage to human and environmental health from man-made toxic substances. According to Rodricks (1992), Carson’s book â€Å"almost single-handedly created modern society’s fears about synthetic chemicals in the environment and, among other things, fostered renewed interest in the science of toxicology†.Certainly the consolidation of academic and related pursuits into the study of toxic substances in the environment dates from about the same time as the publication of Silent Spring. Prior to the 1960s, there were no coordinated programmes in research, in education or in regulation that systematically addressed toxic substances in the environment. Considerable progress has been made in all these areas during the past four decades. Fate of chemicals in the environment and within organisms As ecotoxicologists we are concerned with the movement and fate of toxic chemicals at both the organism level and that of the whole ecosystem.The relevant issues are: †¢ the source, †¢ transport, †¢ modification and †¢ final fate of the pollutants. At the organism level we need to be concerned with †¢ Uptake †¢ Excretion †¢ Sites of action, metabolism or storage T oxicity testing and the regulation and release of toxic chemicals As ecotoxicology largely arose from toxicology and the need to regulate the introduction of potentially toxic chemicals into the environment, toxicity testing remains central to the subject today. Most toxicity testing for pollutants is still based on tests on individual organisms in artificial test situations (see list of examples in next section).These tests are cheap, reliable and easy to perform but there is much debate about the relevance of many standard toxicity tests to ‘real life'. Initially in the early days of environmental toxicology the concept of the ‘most sensitive species' was used to relate the results of toxicity tests to the ‘real world'. Certain species in a particular community were assessed as being ‘most sensitive' to pollutants. The logic was that if a pollutant was non-toxic to the ‘most sensitive' species then it would be safe for the rest of the community.Essent ially, this logic remains today – the results of tests on single species, in artificial situations are extrapolated to predict the effects of pollutants on whole communities or ecosystems. It is assumed that if you have enough information about the effects of a pollutant on the parts of an ecosystem, then you can assemble the effects on the whole. There is however, some question about the usefulness of extrapolating from simple, highly artificial, single-species toxicity tests to complex, multi-variate ecosystems.Forbes & Forbes (1994) argue that â€Å"understanding and predicting the consequences of pollutant-induced effects on ecosystems requires that the effects be examined at the level of interest† i. e. the population, community or ecosystem. This debate has been the source of much division in ecotoxicology, between the Applied, often Industrial, Ecotoxicologists concerned with the practicalities of chemical registration and testing and the Pure or Academic Ecotox icologists who regard many toxicity testing regimes as inappropriate or at worst useless.Unfortunately, never the twain shall meet and the level of communication between the two camps has not been great. A fictional exchange makes the point well (from Forbes & Forbes 1994): â€Å"Academic Ecotoxicologist: Single species acute toxicity tests are too simplistic and have no connection with what is really going on out in nature. These standard tests are not only irrelevant and a waste of time, they may in fact do more harm than good if they lead us to believe that we can use them to adequately protect the environment when in fact we cannot.Industrial Ecotoxicologist: These tests may be oversimplified, but they are also cost-efficient, easy to perform, the procedures have been worked out, and the fact is they are required by government. We have absolutely no incentive to do more than is required by law, and, frankly, you have given us little hard evidence that current test procedures do fail to protect the environment adequately. Government Ecotoxicologist: Do you have any idea of the number of new chemicals that we have to assess each year?We can't tell industry to stop producing new chemicals and we can't wait until we understand the whole system before we try to protect it. If you think current procedures fail, then come up with some better tests – which must of course be simple, cheap and fast. Academic Ecotoxicologist: (Pause) †¦ Well, it's very complex, and of course I'll need much more data before I can give you an answer. But those single-species acute tests are oversimplified and have no connection with what is really going on out in the field †¦ Government Ecotoxicologist: We need tests! Give us tests! â€Å"The way forward for Ecotoxicology must be to integrate its two halves much more fully. Toxicity testing, using single species, do provide useful information and will almost certainly remain central to the regulation and registration of toxic chemicals but much can be done to expand the scope of toxicity testing, to add tests that apply to higher levels of organisation and so increase their relevance to the communities and ecosystems that are being protected. Testing methodologies An extensive range of ecotoxicological and biodegradation tests are required for the chemical, agrochemical and pharmaceutical industries.The tests often used include: †¢ Bacterial toxicity tests †¢ Algal Growth tests with a variety of species †¢ Acute toxicity tests with Lemna minor †¢ Acute and Reproduction tests in Daphnia magna †¢ Acute toxicity tests with the marine copepod Acartia tonsa †¢ Oyster embryo larval toxicity test †¢ Acute toxicity test with the marine invertebrate Mysidopsis bahia †¢ Earthworm toxicity tests †¢ Toxicity Tests with sediment dwelling organisms such as Chironomus or Lumbriculus †¢ Acute toxicity tests with freshwater and marine fish †¢ Bioaccumulatio n in fish †¢ Fish growth tests Early Life Cycle tests with fish Algal tests Several freshwater species are routinely tested. The most commonly used are Scenedesmus subspicatus and Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata. Other species used include Navicula Pelliculosa. Skeletonema costatum is the marine species preferred by most regulatory bodies. Electronic particle counters and size distribution analysers are used to monitor the growth of algae in the studies. Lemna is a useful substitute for higher plants. Invertebrate Tests Acute and reproduction studies are routinely conducted with Daphnia magna.Acute tests with other species are also available including the marine copepod Acartia tonsa, the freshwater sediment dwelling species Chironomus riparius or Lumbirculus variegatus and the amphipod Gammarus pulex. Fish Acute tests are conducted under static, semi-static or flow-through conditions. The choice of test regime is dependent upon the chemical properties. Tests using species comm only encountered wild in the UK are rare as most tests are conducted using species adapted for life in the laboratory including: The species used include: †¢ Rainbow trout †¢ Common carp Golden orfe †¢ Bluegill sunfish †¢ Fathead minnow †¢ Japanese killifish †¢ Zebra fish Studies can also be conducted using marine species such as Turbot and Sheepshead minnow. Definitions used in Ecotoxicology Some of the terms used in ecotoxicology, such as LD50, have simple, widely accepted definitions and hence can be defined here with some confidence. Others however vary quite widely in their interpretation from one text to another. I have tried to indicate these below and can only suggest that the reader refer carefully to the introduction of the text they are using.Where there is likely to be some contradiction I have listed the reference for the definitions given. [pic] ECOTOXICOLOGY †¢ is concerned with the toxic effects of chemical and physical agents on li ving organisms, especially on populations and communities within defined ecosystems: it includes the transfer pathways of those agents and their interactions with the environment. Butler, 1978. †¢ investigates the effects of substances on organisms. The hazard to animal and plant populations can be determined by using survey data (retrospective) or by performing specific tests (prospective).Rudolph & Boje, 1986. †¢ the science that seeks to predict the impacts of chemicals on ecosystems. Levin et al 1989. †¢ the study of harmful effects of chemicals upon ecosystems. Walker et al 1996. [pic] POLLUTANT or CONTAMINANT, XENOBIOTIC or ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICAL? Variations of use of these terms are commonplace. â€Å"Environmental chemical† may be used to describe simply any chemical that occurs in the environment (Walker et al 1996) or substances which enter the environment as a result of human activity or occur in higher concentrations than they would in nature (Rombk e & Moltmann 1995).The terms contaminant and pollutant can be described separately but are often used as synonyms. Both words are used to describe chemicals that are found at levels judged to be above those that would normally be expected. â€Å"Pollutants† carries the connotation of the potential to cause harm, whereas contaminants are not by definition harmful. This is however, not an easy distinction to make. Whether or not a contaminant is a pollutant may depend on its level in the environment and the organism or system being considered, thus one particular substance may be a contaminant relative to one species but pollutant relative to another.Finally, in practice it is often difficult to demonstrate that harm is not being caused so that in effect pollutant and contaminant become synonymous. (Walker et al 1996). Xenobiotic is used to describe compounds that are ‘foreign' to a particular organism, that is they do not play a part in their normal biochemistry. A chemi cal that is normal to one organism may be foreign to another and so xenobiotics may be naturally occurring as well as man-made compounds (Walker et al 1996). The term Xenobiotic is sometimes also used in a more general sense to describe â€Å"foreign substances† in the environment (Rombke & Moltmann 1995). [pic]HARM or DAMAGE? Biological systems are resilient to harm caused by adverse factors in the environment since they are able to adapt to some insults. There is a fundamental difference in viewpoint between these two words, one defines harm as an effect regardless of any biological compensation that the population might make, the other defines damage as occurring only if there is an effect subsequent to any compensation. harm: biochemical or physical changes which adversely affect individual organisms' birth, growth or mortality rates. Such changes would necessarily produce population declines were it not that other processes may compensate. Walker et al 1996). damage: â⠂¬Å"the interaction between a substance and a biological system. The substance's potential to cause damage is weighed against the protective potential inherent in the biological system (e. g. excretion or metabolic reactions, adaptation or regeneration)† (Rombke & Moltmann 1995). [pic] ENDPOINTS, DOSE and CONCENTRATION There are many different ways in which toxicity can be measured but they are usually assessed relative to a particular outcome or END POINT. Initially, most Toxicity Tests measured the number of organisms killed by a particular DOSE or CONCENTRATION of the chemical being tested.With terrestrial animals the DOSE of chemical (taken orally, applied to the skin or injected) administered is usually recorded. DOSE is usually used where the dietary dose of a test chemical can be accurately determined. For aquatic organisms or where the test chemical is dosed into the surrounding medium, the tests usually measure the CONCENTRATION of chemical in the surrounding water/me dium. The following measures, known as a group as EDs or ECs (Effective Doses or Effective Concentrations) are frequently used to describe data from toxicity tests: LD50Median lethal dose, that is the dose that kills 50% of the population LC50 Median lethal concentration. ED50/EC50 Median effect dose/concentration, that is the dose that produced a defined effect to 50% of the population. NOED/NOEC No Observed Effect Dose (or Concentration) NOEL No Observed Effect Level. Sometimes this more general term is used to describe either of the above. It can be defined as the highest level (that is dose or concentration) of the test chemical that does not cause a statistically significant difference from the control. LOED/LOE Lowest Observed Effect Dose (or Concentration)There has been a move away from the use of lethal end points in toxicity testing towards the measurement of EFFECTS rather than death. Examples of EFFECTS which can be used include changes in: reproduction (eg. number of egg s laid or young hatched); growth (e. g. biomass or body length) and biochemical or physiological effects (e. g. enzyme synthesis or respiration). [pic] HAZARD AND RISK Toxicity data is used to make assessments of the HAZARD and the RISK posed by a particular chemical. Where: HAZARD is the potential to cause harm RISK is the probability that harm will be caused.Defining HAZARD involves answering two questions, ‘how much damage are we prepared to tolerate' and ‘how much proof is enough'. The first is a question for society, alleviating/avoiding/repairing damage involves costs, how much are we prepared to pay? The second is largely a scientific problem of providing sufficient evidence that damage is due to pollution. HAZARD is not necessarily directly related to toxicity, it is a product of exposure and toxicity, a compound with moderate toxicity but very high exposure may cause more damage that a very toxic chemical with very low exposure.RISK is usually defined using the predicted environmental concentration (PEC) and the predicted environmental no effect concentration (PNEC). Information on the movement and behaviour of pollutants in the environment are used to calculate the PEC whereas data from Toxicity Testing must be extrapolated to calculate the PNEC. The making of these calculations is not a precise art, apart from doubts about the extrapolation of Toxicity data from the lab to the field it can be very difficult to estimate the degree of exposure, particularly for mobile taxa such as birds and mammals. [pic]BIOMARKERS A Biomarker can be defined as a â€Å"biological response to a chemical or chemicals that gives a measure of exposure and sometimes, also, of toxic effect† (Walker et al 1996), they can be divided into biomarkers of exposure and of toxic effect. Examples of biomarkers range from the inhibition of AChE (acetylcholinesterase) in the nervous system of animals to the thinning of eggshells in birds. Biomarkers can help to brid ge the gap between the laboratory and the field by giving direct evidence of whether or not a particular animal, plant or ecosystem is being affected by pollution.They will often provide more reliable evidence of exposure than measurements of the pollutants themselves in the environment, the latter are often short-lived and difficult to detect, whereas their effects (detectable via biomarkers) may be much longer-term. [pic] A QUESTION OF SCALE AND ACCURACY The difficulty in extrapolating from simple, highly artificial, single-species toxicity tests to complex, multi-variate ecosystems has led to attempts to develop more complex systems which can be used in toxicity tests.Such systems are usually termed microcosms, mesocosms or macrocosms, that is small, medium or large multispecies systems. It must be possible to control conditions in these systems to such an extent that they can provide meaningful, reproducible (that is, the system could be accurately copied elsewhere), replicable (that is, two replicates of the same experiment would produce the same results) data in toxicity tests. Simply because they are more complex systems it is seldom possible to produce tests that are as precise and controlled as those carried out in single species STTs.However, despite their limitations these larger-scale tests can provide important insights into the effect of pollutants on whole systems rather than on single species. [pic] MIXTURES OF CHEMICALS, ADDITION OR MULTIPLICATION? In natural systems, organisms are often (usually) exposed to more than one pollutant at the same time. However, regulatory authorities usually assume – unless there is evidence to the contrary – that the toxicity of combinations of chemicals is roughly additive.Fortunately in many cases this is quite correct but in some cases, toxicity is more than additive in that is there is POTENTIATION of toxicity. One particular type of potentiation called SYNERGISM occurs where the effect of two or more chemicals combine to have greater impact than expected from their individual concentrations. [pic] Ecotoxicology – Pesticide Definitions [pic] What is a pesticide? A literal definition of a pesticide would be â€Å"a killer of pests†. In practice pesticides are no longer aimed exclusively at killing the pests they are used to control and the term has acquired a rather wider meaning uch as â€Å"the chemical tools used to manage all kinds of pests† or in the US it's more official definition is â€Å"any substance used for controlling, preventing destroying, repelling or mitigating any pest† (all definitions from Ware 1991). Hence pesticides include not only those chemicals which kill the pest they are used against but also those such as insect chemosterilants or plant and insect growth regulators which control pest populations without necessarily, physically, killing the pests they come into contact with.Pesticides have been divided into many diffe rent classes. Firstly, according to the target organism that they control, so insect-icides kill (or control) insects, rodent-icides control rodents etc. The -icide suffix has been widely used in the past, as shown in Table 1, but relatively few of these terms are in common use today. Secondly, pesticides can be classified according to their mode of action, that is the way in which they act on the pest population, e. g. attractants, repellents, chemosterilants etc.Finally, the definition of a pesticide has been widened once again to: â€Å"pesticides are used by man as intentional additions to his environment in order to improve environmental quality for himself, his animals or his plants† (Ware 1991). This definition allows the inclusion of 2 new classes of treatment. Firstly those such as plant growth regulators, which are not only used as herbicides to control weeds, but also to control directly the growth of the crop and hence improve its success.For instance, they are us ed to reduce the growth of cereals so that they do not become too tall and prone to ‘lodging' before harvest. Secondly, microbial pesticides which are not based on a chemical but on bacteria, fungi, nematodes and viruses which attack the pest. [pic] Table 1 Classes of pesticide according to : A. the target organism and B. pesticide mode of action. After Ware (1991). |CLASS |FUNCTION | |A.By Target Organism   | |acaricide |kills/controls mites | |algicide |kills/controls algae | |avicide |kills/controls or repels birds | |bactericide |kills/controls bacteria | |fungicide |kills/controls fungi | |herbicide |kills/controls plants | |insecticide |kills/controls insects | |larvicide |kills/controls larvae (usually mosquitoes) | |miticide |kills/controls mites | |molluscicide |kills/controls snails & slugs.May include oysters, clams, & mussels | |nematicide |kills/controls nematodes | |ovicide |kills/controls eggs | |pediculicide |kills/controls lice | |piscicide |kills/c ontrols fish | |predicide |kills/controls predators (usually such as coyotes) | |rodenticide |kills/controls rodents | |silvicide |kills/controls trees & brush | |slimicide |kills/controls slime | termiticide |kills/controls termites | |B. By Mode of Action – by affect on pest   | |attractants/pheromones |Attract animals, especially insects usually into traps. Often sexual pheromones. | |chemosterilants |Sterilise insects or vertebrates (birds, rodents). Usually sterilise males. | |defoliants |Remove leaves. | |desiccants |Speed drying of plants. Used not only to kill weeds but also as pre-harvest desiccants to make harvesting | | |easier. |disinfectants |Kill or inactivate harmful micro-organisms | |feeding stimulants |Cause insects to feed more vigorously | |growth regulators |Stimulate or retard plant or insect growth. Natural or artificial hormones used not only to kill weed species | | |but also to protect crops such as cereals from lodging. | |repellents |Repel insects, mites, ticks or pest vertebrates (dogs, rabbits, deer, birds). | |B. By Mode of Action – by timing of application | |curative (fungicides) |applied to the plant after initial infection. |eradicant (fungicides) |applied when disease symptoms have already become visible, often to prevent the spread of disease. | |protectant (fungicides) |applied to the plant surface before infection. | |pre-plant or pre-sowing |applied before crop is sown or planted | |(herbicides) | | |pre-emergence (herbicides) |applied before the crop has germinated | |post-emergence(herbicides) |applied after the crop has germinated | |B.By Mode of Action – by selectivity | |the degree to which a pesticide discriminates between target and non-target organisms. | |selective |A selective pesticide effects a very narrow range of species other than the target pest or may be. The chemical | | |itself may be selective in that it does not affect non-target species or it may be used selectively in such a | | |way that non-target species do not come into contact with it. | |non-selective |a non-selective pesticide kills a very wide range of plants, insects, fungi etc. | |B.By Mode of Action – by site of interaction with pest | |systemic |the pesticide is absorbed by the pest and moves around within the pest system to reach parts of the pest remote | | |from the point of application | |contact |contact pesticides directly affect the parts of the plant, insect, fungus etc to which they are applied. They | | |cause localised damage to the plant or animal tissue on contact. | References Barlow, F (1985) Chemistry and formulation. In: Pesticide Application: Principles and Practice. Ed: P T Haskell. Oxford Science Publications: Oxford. pp 1-34. Dent, D R (1995) Integrated Pest Management.Chapman & Hall: London, Glasgow, Weinheim, New York, Todyo, Melbourne, Madras. Rombke, J & J M Moltmann (1995) Applied Ecotoxicology. Lewis Publishers: Boca Raton, New York, London, Tokyo. Wa re, G W (1991) Fundamentals of Pesticides. A self-instruction guide. Thomson Publications: Fresno USA. [pic] Ecotoxicology – Pesticide Classification – Insecticides [pic] While pesticides can be divided into many classes by target organism, mode of action etc for most purposes chemical pesticides are divided into three major groups according to their target organism, that is: insecticides, herbicides and fungicides. These groups are then subdivided into chemical groups such as organophosphates, organochlorines, carbamates etc.This simplified classification effectively groups acaricides, nematicides and molluscicides in with insecticides as many chemicals that have acaricidal, nematocidal or molluscicidal properties are also insecticidal. The current proliferation of chemical insecticides dates from World War II, until this time the insecticides available were based on: arsenicals, petroleum oils, sulphur, hydrogen cyanide gas, cryolite and on extracts from plants such as pyrethrum, nicotine and rotenone. Table 2: Classification of Insecticides gives a summary of the main chemical classes of insecticide and the main chemicals in each class. The characteristics of the main classes of insecticide: the organochlorines, organophosphates, carbamates and pyrethroids are summarised below. Organochlorines Also called: chlorinated hydrocarbonsA large and varied group that has a particularly high public profile because of the environmental problems they have caused. They were mostly discovered in 1942-56 and were very important in the early success of synthetic insecticides. They are mostly Insecticides with a very wide range of actions, they can be divided into three main groups: DDT and related compounds including rhothane (DDD) and methoxychlor. Widely used during World War II for control of disease vectors (such as mosquitoes) and subsequently much used on agricultural pests such as ectoparasites of farm animals and insect disease vectors and also widel y used against insects in domestic and industrial premises. chlorinated cyclodiene insecticides such as aldrin, dieldrin and heptachlor. ost widely used as seed dressings and soil insecticides. hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs), such as lindane used against pests and parasites of farm animals, also in insecticidal seed dressings. Organochlorine insecticides are very stable solids with: limited vapour pressure, very low water solubility and high lipophilicity. They may be very persistent in their original form or as stable metabolites. They tend to be stored in body fats and are particularly hazardous because they are so stable and tend to accumulate in successive organisms in the food chain. DDT and the HCHs a regarded as only moderately toxic to mammals while the chlorinated cyclodienes are highly toxic.Action: all organochlorine insecticides are nerve poisons but DDT has a different action to the chlorinated cyclodienes and HCHs. DDT acts on the sodium channels in the nervous system s o that the passage of an ‘action potential' along the nerve is disrupted. It causes uncontrolled repetitive spontaneous discharges along the nerve. Uncoordinated muscle tremors and twitches are characteristic symptoms. The chlorinated cyclodienes and HCHs act on the GABA receptors which function as a channel for Cl – ions through the nerve membranes. They bind to the GABA receptors and reduce the flow of Cl – ions. Typical symptoms include convulsions. Organophosphates Also called: organic esters of phosphorus acid.Such as bromophos, chlorpyrifos, diazinon, dichlorvos, fenitrothion, malathion, parathion and phorate. The same basic constituents are combined with many additional chemicals to give a wide range of products with very different properties. Organophosphates were developed during the second world war and have two main uses: as insecticides and as nerve gases (chemical warfare agents). They are mostly liquids, liphophilic, with some volatility and a few a re solids. Generally, they are less stable and more readily broken down than organochlorines and are relatively short-lived in the environment, hence most of their hazard is associated with short-term (acute) toxicity.The water solubility of the various organophosphate compounds is very variable and they are prepared in numerous formulations: as emulsifiable concentrates for spraying and to control ectoparasites of farm animals (particularly sheep dips) and sometimes internal parasites (such as ox warble fly); as seed dressings and as granular formulations particularly used for the most toxic organophosphates (e. g. disyston and phorate) as the active ingredient is effectively ‘locked up' in the granule and is safer to handle and only slowly released into the environment. Organophosphates are also used to control vertebrate pests such as Quelea in Africa. Action: like organochlorines, organophosphates also act as a neurotoxin. They combine with the enzyme acetylcholinesterase and prevent conduction of nerve impulses at junctions in the nervous system where acetylcholine is the natural transmitter.As a result, acetylcholine builds up in the nerve synapse and eventually leads to synaptic block when the acetylcholine can no longer relay signals across the synapse. In neuro-muscle junctions this leads to tetanus, the muscle is in a fixed state, unable to contract or relax in response to nerve stimulation. Carbamates e. g. aldicarb, carbaryl, carbofuran, methiocarb, methomyl, pirimicarb and propoxur Carbamates are a more recent development than organochlorines or organophosphates, they are all derivatives of carbamic acid. The basic carbamate group is combined with different chemicals to produce insecticides with a wide range of properties (in particular they vary greatly in their water solubility) and actions.Carbamates are not only used as insecticides but also molluscicides and nematicides. Carbamates are also used as herbicides and fungicides but these ha ve a different mode of action and are described elsewhere. Carbamates are mainly used to control insect pests in agriculture and horticulture, they have abroad spectrum of activity and usually act by contact or stomach action although a few possess systemic activity (aldicarb, carbofuran). Action: basically the same as organophosphates, inhibiting the action of acetylcholine at the nerve synapses. Doses of carbamates are not accumulative and carbamate poisoning is more easy to reverse than that caused by organophosphates.They are generally regarded as representing a short-term hazard. Pyrethroids Such as cypermethrin, deltamethrin, permethrin, phenothrin, resmethrin. Pyrethrin insecticides were developed from naturally occurring chemicals found in the flower heads of Chrysanthenum sp. and these provided the model for the production of synthetic pyrethroid insecticides. Pyrethroids are generally more stables than natural pyrethrins. The development of pyrethroids can be traced over 4 main phases (Ware 1991). The first generation allethrin was a synthetic duplicate of a natural pyrethrum, cinerin I. The second generation included bioallethrin, phenothrin, resmethrin and bioresmethrin.These were marginally more effective than natural pyrethrums but were neither effective enough nor photostable enough to be used extensively in agriculture. However, they are still used in pest control formulations for the home. The third generation of pyrethroids included fenvalerate and permethrin which were stable in sunlight and only slightly volatile and could be used successfully in agriculture. Finally, the fourth and current generation of pyrethroids can be used at much lower concentrations (one-fifth to one-tenth) that those in generation 3 and are all photostable. Overall, most pyrethroids are not sufficiently soluble in water to be used a systemic insecticides. They are mainly formulated as emulsifiable concentrates for spraying.They control a wide range of agricultural a nd horticultural insect pests and are used extensively to control insect vectors of disease (e. g. tsetse fly in Africa) Action: pyrethroids are generally solids with very low water solubility and they act as neruotoxins in a very similar way to DDT. They are readily biodegradable but can bind to particles in soils and sediments and can be persistent in these locations. They are particularly toxic to insects as opposed to mammals and birds and the main environmental concerns are over their effects on fish and non-target invertebrates. Table 2: Classification of Insecticides Data from: Whitehead, R (1995) The UK Pesticide Guide. CAB International & BCPC. Chemical group |Compound |Action |Notes | |AMIDINES | | | | |   |amitraz |   |also ACARICIDE | |BOTANICAL | | | | |   |azadirachtin |insect growth regulator |extracted from Neem | |   |nicotine |contact, non-persistent general |extracted from tobacco | | | |purpose, | | |   |pyrethrin |contact, non-persistent |extracted from Pyrethrum | |   |rotenone |contact |extracted from Derris and Lonchocarpus | |CARBAMATES | | | |   |aldicarb |systemic |also NEMATICIDE | |   |bendiocarb |contact & ingested |   | |   |carbaryl |contact |also WORM KILLER, FRUIT THINNER | |   |carbofuran |systemic |also NEMATICIDE | |   |methiocarb |stomach acting |also MOLLUSCICIDE | |   |methomyl |fly bait |   | |   |pirimicarb |contact & fumigant aphids only |   | |   |propoxur |fumigant, maimainly in |   | | | |glasshouses | | |   |thiocarb |pelleted bait |also MOLLUSCICIDE | |ORGANOCHLORINES | | | | |diphenyl aliphatic derivatives |DDT |   |   | |   |rhothane (DDD) |   |   | |benzene derivatives |lindane ? amma HCH |contact, ingested & fumigant |   | |cyclodiene derivatives |aldrin |persistent |UK revoked 1989 | |   |dieldrin |persistent |UK revoked 1989 | |   |endosulfan |contact & ingested |also ACARICIDE | |ORGANOPHOSPHATES | | | | |aliphatic derivatives |dichlorvos |contact , fumigant    | |   |dimethoate |contact, systemic |also ACARICIDE | |   |disulfoton |systemic, granules |   | |   |malathion |contact |also ACARICIDE | |   |phorate |systemic |   | |phenyl derivatives |fenitrothion |contact, broad spectrum |   | |   |parathion |   |   | |heterocyclic derivatives |chlorpyrifos |contact & ingested |also ACARICIDE | |   |diazinon |contact |   | |ORGANOTINS | | | | |   |fenbutatin-oxide |   |ONLY ACARICIDE | |PYRETHROIDS | | | | |generation 1 |allethrin |   |   | |generation 2 |bioresmethrin |contact, residual |also ACARICIDE | |   |phenothrin |contact & ingested |   | |   |resmethrin |contact |   | |   |tetramethrin |contact |   | |generation 3 |fenvalerate |contact |   | |   |permethrin |contact & ingested, broad |   | | | spectrum | | |generation 4 |bifenthrin |contact, residual |also ACARICIDE | |   |cypermethrin |contact & ingested |   | |   |cyfluthrin |   |   | |   |fenpropathrin |contact & ingested |also ACARICIDE | [pic] Ecotoxicology – Pesticide Classification – Herbicides [pic] It is really only in the last 50 years that use of chemical weedkillers or herbicides has become widespread. Prior to this, the control of weeds in crops was carried out largely by manual weeding, crop rotation, ploughing and various ways of stopping weed seeds being dispersed in crop seed. Today, the heavy use of herbicides is confined to those countries that practice highly intensive, mechanised farming.In 1971 it was estimated that more energy was expended on weeding crops than on any other single human task (Brain 1971 ). Herbicides are also used extensively in non-crop and amenity situations such as industrial sites, roadsides, ditch banks, recreational areas etc. Herbicides can be classified in a number of different ways. The main classification used is often according to chemical class but they can also be classified according to their selectivity, the way th at they affect the plant, the timing of application and the area covered by an application. Herbicides are classed as selective if they kill some plant species but not others, for instance they may kill the weeds but not the crop and as non-selective if they kill all vegetation.Herbicides may be intrinsically selective in that they are active against some species of weed but not others but they may also be used selectively, that is in such a way that they only come into contact with the weeds and not the crop. There are two main ways in which herbicides affect the plants they are applied to: contact herbicides kill parts of the plant that they come into contact with. These are generally used against annual weeds and if they are to be effective need complete coverage of the target weed with the chemical. Systemic or translocated herbicides are absorbed either by the roots or foliage of the plant and then move within the plants system to areas remote from the site of application.Trans located herbicides tend to be slower acting than contact ones and while they can be used against annual weeds they are more commonly aimed at perennial weeds. With translocated herbicides a uniform, although not necessarily complete, coverage of the target weeds is necessary. Finally, herbicides can be classified according to the timing of application in relation to the crop they are being used in. Pre-plant, or pre-sowing herbicides must be applied to an area before the crop is planted. Pre-emergence herbicides are applied before the crop has emerged, this may allow an added level of selectivity as a herbicide can be applied to growing weeds while the crop itself is still protected by the oil. Finally, post-emergence herbicides are applied after the crop has emerged from the soil.Again, a level of selectivity may be introduced by applying a germination inhibitor to prevent further germination of weed seeds – after the crop itself has germinated. Phenoxy Herbicides e. g. 2,4- D, MCPA, 2,4,5-T All derivatives of phenoxyalkane carboxylic acids that act as plant growth regulator herbicides. Phenoxy herbicides were the first safe, selective herbicides discovered and they are still used in huge quantities. They act by simulating the action of natural hormones and produce uncoordinated plant growth. Their action is selective as they are toxic to dicotyledonous but not monocotyledonous plants. Hence they can be used to control ‘dicot' weeds (broad leaved weeds) in ‘monocot' crops (e. g. cereals, grass). Their physical properties vary greatly according to formulation.For instance, as alkali salts they are highly water soluble (can be formulated as aqueous solutions) whereas when as simple esters they have low water solubility and are lipophilic (generally formulated as emulsifiable concentrates). The main hazard they present is mainly posed by unwanted spray drift but they have also sometimes been contaminated with the highly toxic compound TCDD (or dioxin). Other related compounds, also with plant growth regulating properties include phenoxypropionic acids (e. g. CMPP) and phenoxybutyric acids (e. g. 2,4DB). Table 3: Classification of Herbicides Data from: Whitehead, R (1995) The UK Pesticide Guide. CAB International & BCPC. Chemical group |Compound |Uptake/action |Persistence |Timing/site of |Other uses | | | | | |application | | |ACETANILIDES | | | | | | |   |alachlor |via roots, |residual |pre/post-emergence |   | | | |translocated | | | | |AMIDES or substituted amides | | | | | | |   |napropamide |   |   |pre-emergence |   | |   |propachlor |   |   |pre-emergence | |BENZOICS or arylaliphatic acids | | | | | | |   |dicamba |translocated |   |soil/foliar |   | |BENZONITRILES or substituted nitriles| | | | | | |   |dichlobenil |   |residual |soil |   | |DIAZINONES | | | | | | |   |bentazone |contact |   |post-emergence |   | |BIPYRIDYLIUMS | | | | | | |   |diquat |contact |non-residual |f oliar |pre-harvest, CROP | | | | | | |DESICCANT | |   |paraquat |contact |non-residual |   |   | |CARBAMATES or carbanilates | | | | | | |   |asulam |translocated |   |foliar |   | |   |chlorpropham |   |residual |soiltubers |POTATO SPROUT SUPPRESSANT| |   |phenmedipham |contact |   |foliar |   | |CHLOROALKANOIC ACIDS or chlorinated | | | | | | |aliphatic acids | | | | | | |   |dalapon |   |persistent |soil? | |DINITROANILINES or nitroanilines | | | | | | |   |pendimethalin |   |residual |pre-emergence, soil|   | |   |trifluralin |   |   |soil-incorporated |   | |HBNs | | | | | | |   |bromoxynil |contact |   |post-emergence |   | |   |ioxynil |contact |   |post-emergence |   | |IMIDAZOLINONES or imidazoles | | | | | | |   |imazapyr |translocated |residual |foliar, soil |   | |   |imazaquin |   |   |   |   | |OXIMES or cyclohexenones | | | | | | |   |cycloxydim |translocated |   |post-emergence |   | |   |setho xydim |   |   |post-emergence |   | |PHENOXYACETIC ACIDS | | | | | | |   |MCPA |translocated |   |post-emergence |   | |PHENOXYBUTYRIC ACIDS | | | | | | |   |MCPB |translocated |   |post-emergence |   | |PHENOXYPROPRIONIC ACIDS | | | | | |   |diclofop-methyl |translocated |   |post-emergence |   | |   |fenoxaprop-P-ethyl |   |   |post-emergence |   | |   |fluazifop-P-butyl |   |   |post-emergence |   | |   |mecoprop |translocated |   |   |   | |   |mecoprop-P |translocated |   |post-emergence |   | |PHOSPONIC ACIDS or phosphona amino | | | | | | |acids or phosphates | | | | | | |   |glufosinate-ammonium |contact |non-residual |foliar |   | |   |glyphosate |translocated |non-residual |foliar |   | |PICOLINIC ACIDS | | | | | | |   |picloram |translocated |persistent |foliar, soil |   | |PYRIDINOXY ACIDS | | | | | | |   |fluroxypur |   |   |post-emergence |   | |   |triclopyr |   |   |foliar |   | |QUATER NARY AMMONIUM | | | | | | |   |difenzoquat |   |   |post-emergence |   | |SULFONYLUREAS | | | | | |   |metsulfuron-methyl |contact |residual |post-emergence |   | |   |triasulfuron |   |   |post-emergence |   | |THIOCARBAMATES | | | | | | |   |tri-allate |   |   |soil-acting, |   | | | | | |pre-emergence | | |TRIAZINES | | | | | | |   |atrazine |   |residual |pre/post emergence |   | |   |cyanazine |contact |residual |pre-emergence |   | |   |metribuzin |contact |residual |pre-/post-emergence|   | |   |simazine |root uptake |   |soil

Candide by Voltaire Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Candide by Voltaire - Essay Example These events are highlighted in the as the author tries to depict the evil in the society. Voltaire needed to highlight that Candide’s society needed critical reforms. This paper will highlight the significance of the battlefield and the earthquake in terms of social identity. In chapter three, Voltaire describes the battlefield in Bulgars. Candide witnessed the adverse effects caused by war. He was there when two armies harmoniously arranged themselves with music that Voltaire describes, as â€Å"hell itself had never heard† (Voltaire 10). The satirical manner in which Voltaire describes the war speaks volumes about the attitudes of the society. The men in the army used cannons and bayonets to slay the people. In a few seconds, Candide witnessed over 30,000 people killed in the war. Both the kings of the armies were desperate to win the war. Therefore, they expected the soldiers to murder more people. Candide was unable to bear with the reality of the situation. He sought to move away from the battlefield and be able to reflect on both the causes and the effects of the war. He highlights that he saw many dead bodies as well as other people on the verge of death. He witnessed the desperation with which men saw their wives and children die. Even in death, women held firmly to their children. It is unfortunate that the Bulgarian heroes also raped the women. The scene was devastating and Candide had never witnessed such evil. Without a doubt, there were no justifiable reasons for the war. The two kings needed to enjoy the glory of winning a war without any noble causes. Unfortunately, the war led to the death of over 30,000 innocent people. Evidently, the society of the Bulgars needed redemption, so that they can restore peace. The society needed reforms if it were to maintain peace and avoid war (9). Candide reflection on the causes and effects of the war demonstrates that the society had to calculate the cost of the war and face the

The Impact of Divorce on Children Research Paper - 2

The Impact of Divorce on Children - Research Paper Example Divorce is one of the events within the family that can affect the development of the children in multitude of ways. The paper is aimed to discuss and to present the impact of divorce on children. To achieve the said objective the background of divorce which includes the date in the past few years will be discussed. Then, the effects of divorce on children specifically the different aspects and facets of development and behavior will be presented. The data were based on gathered empirical studies and reference books related to the topic. Background Information on Divorce For the past decades, recorded data and observations confirmed the detrimental effects of divorce in the life and development of the children. Based on the standard family environment model that focuses on the optimum conditions for the proper development of children, marital conflict and divorce increase the risk of having problems in the behavior of children (Amato and Cheadle, 2008). In the United States, divorce affects approximately 50 percent of the families and one-half to two-thirds of the said percentage remarry. In addition, one in every six adults remarries two or more times which multiply the effects of divorce a few more times. ... Upon the achievement of a particular perspective about divorce, it is important to determine the specific effect of divorce and the aspects that are affected. Different Effects of Divorce on Children In general, children who had experienced divorce can be affected in any or all aspects of their life from the year of the event through adulthood. There are different aspects affected by divorce. The most significant aspect is behavior but aspects such as financial or economic facets of their life can also be affected (Forst and Blomquist, 1991). Behavioral Effects of Divorce Behavioral aspect of the effects of divorce on children is the most significant facet of the issue since it can result not only to short term but also to long term repercussions. Correcting the negative effects on a child to heal himself and lead a normal life can be considered as the main reason for finding solutions and giving attention to the said aspect. Children who had experienced divorce in the family are obs erved to have externalizing problems such as aggression and conduct disorder. Higher levels of antisocial behavior can also be observed in children from a family that encountered divorce as compared to children from an intact family. Internalizing problems such as depression, anxiety, and withdrawal are also included in the probable behavioral issues that can be experienced by children with divorced parents (Forst and Blomquist, 1991, p.61) The first two years of the divorce is considered to be the hardest period for the children due to adjustment issues which are based on the effects of separation to either or both of the parents. The effects of other factors after divorce such as single parenting, visitation, and economic difficulties are also classified

Physical Privacy walmart Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

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The Great Debaters Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

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Internal auditor in a company - Essay Example Your organization must prioritize fixing the accounting flaws in the system because the Sarbanes Oxley Act of 2002 has raised the accountability of executive managers. The company needs a professional assessment of its internal control deficiencies. The firm must hire an internal auditor as soon as possible to evaluate the firm’s accounting system and recommend corrective actions. â€Å"The Institute of Internal Auditors defines internal audit as an independent, objective assurance and consulting activity designed to add value and improve an organization’s operations† (Menk). During the past decade the auditing field is growing in demand due to new regulations such as the Sarbanes Oxley Act which have raised the bar for accounting professionals. Section 404 of the Sarbanes Oxley Act mandates that all public companies establish internal control mechanisms and procedures† (Searchfinancialsecurity, 2011). These mechanisms must be tested on a recurrent basis fo r accuracy and effectiveness. The best person to put in charge of this task is an internal auditor. Due to the fact that the company must continue the internal auditing process year long it is cheaper for the company to hire an internal auditor full time than to outsource the work to another accounting firm.

Electoral College Of U.S.A Essay Example for Free

Electoral College Of U.S.A Essay The President and Vice-President of U. S. A are being elected by a body of electors. The scripter’s of U. S Constitution formulated an indirect method for electing the President and Vice-President. This method is known as the ‘Electoral College â€Å"which scripter viewed that would end in informed, educated persons being selected to their nation’s top position. However, each political party in U. S. A picks up their own cadres to act as electors to elect the top leaders. Thus, presidential candidates have to secure majority votes in the Electoral College for winning the election. In the U. S Presidential election, voters do not vote for President or Vice-President directly but pick up electors who are pledged to support their presidential candidates. Each State in U. S. A has as many electors at is has U. S Senators which will be normally two and U. S Representatives, the number will be depending upon the state’s population. For instance, the District of Colombia is having three electoral votes. Those presidential candidates who have the most popular votes win all of the state’s electoral votes. This is recognized as the â€Å"winner-take-all† rule. (The Columbia Encyclopedia, 2007). The electors in each state will assemble in their legislative assemblies and vote for presidential candidate during the election time. Thus, each state testimony its electoral votes and forwards the results to the U. S Congress which counts the ballots. The counting will be carried over by the Senate and the House of Representatives and it will review the â€Å"Electoral College† votes. The candidate who obtains the majority of 270 Electoral College votes out of total 538 wins despite of the outcome of the popular votes. In case, if there is a tie or if no candidate obtains a majority, then the House of Representatives picks up the President and the Senate picks up the Vice President. Due to the concept â€Å"winner-take-all† dictum, it is possible as it had happened in the year 2000 election (Bush v Al Gore), a candidate who win the popular vote and still lose the Electoral College. Dating from 1845, the federal law requires that electors must be chosen on the Tuesday following the first Monday in November and the counting of votes will be perused by the Congress on January 6. The Electoral College is vehemently attacked that it has to be reformed as it had given the country about 14 minority presidents. Thus, the following are the Presidents who had won the majority in the Electoral College even though they lacked behind in obtaining popular vote. It is to be observed that among the above mentioned Presidents, only Harrison, Hayes and George W. Bush failed to obtain a plurality of the popular vote. The main aim of the Electoral College system is to give more recognition to the less populace states on the basis of the number of a state’s electors on its senators and U. S representatives and to prevent the President to focus more attention to most populous states and on the problems significant to their voters. One of the main intentions of Electoral College is to make sure that most qualified candidate and not the most popular candidate would be chosen by electors on behalf of their states but by making an independent judgment. After the Twelfth Amendment, there were copious efforts to amend the Electoral College and to alter the system of presidential election, but none of them has succeeded. George W. Bush popular-vote loss and victory in Electoral College with a thin margin in the year 2000 again triggered the support for annulment of Electoral College system as it lacks natural justice in deciding the victory of the presidential election.

Travel And Tourism Industry And Virgin Atlantic

Travel And Tourism Industry And Virgin Atlantic The first organisation I want to talk about is Virgin Atlantic. Virgin Atlantic is an extremely popular and successful airline. Virgin Atlantic provides many services on board their flights, and its a scheduled service. Organisation Two: The Tour Operator Thomson. The second organisation Im going to talk and describe is Thomson Tour Operators which is part of the TUI group. Thomson are a multinational tour operator, and they offer a great deal of services towards the consumers who choose to holiday with them. A tour operator has major responsibilities towards the consumer, the travel agent that books the holidays, flights and other ancillary services, and even airport staff from ground handling and aircraft maintenance. Although Thomson can fall under the category of airline, they are also a tour operator and travel agents. Thomson is listed in all three component areas. Thomson specialises in package holidays, but it doesnt just limit the company to that. It provides a great deal of services towards the customer such as: Flights Hotels Car Hire Insurance Package Holidays Below I will analyse and discuss the services of each of the above listed products. Flights: Flights are a crucial product of Thomson. With Thomson creating package holidays to match their customers specific needs, they need a way to transport them to their destinations. Thomson have a large fleet of aircraft in their company, almost the majority being Boeing 767s. When a customer books a holiday with Thomson, naturally, the travel agent or their company website that books the holiday, has to arrange seats on an aircraft. Thomson are a chartered airline, and offer many inflight services, at a small cost, or sometimes, depending on the service completely free. Thomsons airlines offer the customer services such as Duty Free, on board entertainment, meal and drinks services, premium class and priority handling. This is a difference with low cost budget airlines, as a charge has to be made for all services, right down the baggage allowance. When a customer books a package holiday, or even just a flight, for a specific date, a seat on one of Thomsons aircraft has to be available, otherwise, the customer can simply not go on that date. Hotels: Travel companies and tour operators leases hotel rooms from many chains of hotel, so their customers can reside there whilst on their holiday. This all comes back to availability, if a customer books a package holiday, the flight seat has to be available, along with a hotel room, or as many rooms required by the consumer. However, this is not that big an issue, as computers and technology makes this easy for travel agents or even the customer at home. Hotels have to be up to the standard stated on Thomsons website, if Thomsons state that a hotel has five stars, it has to have five stars, again with product description, if the website of the travel agent where the holiday was booked states that the hotel has a sea view, then it must otherwise this breaches the trades and product description act. Hotels have to live up to not only the consumer expectations, but the Tour Operators too, in this case Thomson. Thomson wants the customer to have a relaxing and enjoyable time whilst on holiday, and if the hotel is damaged, or services are not up to scratch, this can seriously jeopardise the customers overall happiness and satisfaction. The consumer may, or probably will complain to a travel rep onsite, and this is reported back to Thomson or the travel agents where holiday was booked, the Tour Operator may choose to terminate the contract if a high volume of complaints are received, as this will not only damaged the hotels name, but also Thomsons too, who are responsible for the customers satisfaction. Errors like this can prevent return business, and referral to that customers friends. Its all about first impressions. Now within the hotel, there are many roles that have to be performed daily or regularly. A major role that is essential, not only to maintain the hotel is cleaning. The hotel has to be clean, not only for the image and reputation of the hotel, but for the customers satisfaction. If a customer walks into the lobby, and finds garbage and paper all over the floor, their first impression of their accommodation will not be the best, and may put them off from enjoying their holiday all together. Rooms are cleaned daily in hotels, but certain hotels have gone green meaning services such as bed sheets are only changed every other day, and towels are washed every few days, unless stated by the customer, by the use of a card that informs the cleaners to take away and replace the towels and sheets. Hotels are responsible for the satisfaction of the customer, as well as the travel reps, and tour operator. All staff in hotels should be friendly, including the cleaners. Hotel staff are responsible along with a travel rep, in this case a Thomson Travel rep to ensure that the customer is enjoying him/herself. If a customer has a problem, they should feel like they can approach a travel rep, or a member of the hotels staff, to complain and have the problem addressed. Complaints should be dealt with quickly and appropriately. If there is an issue with a hotel room, and the customer is dissatisfied, then the customer should either be given a replacement room, or have the problem resolved as quickly as possible. Pass Three: Write a review on the different types of interrelationships in the travel and tourism industry for example: Chains of distribution, integration (Including both Horizontal and Vertical) and interdependencies. Use diagrams where applicable to illustrate your review.

Value of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire

Value of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) is one of the most widely used instruments to measure leadership ability and behaviour in organisations and organisational studies. However this does not mean it is without flaws. This report will describe and discuss the MLQ and its main purposes. It will analyse leadership theories and the ways in which the test resonates with and conflicts with particular theories. In particular it will look at classic and contemporary leadership perspectives and theories and how it has been applied to the development of the MLQ and the Multifactor Leadership Model the questionnaire is based on. This report will show that while there are flaws in the design, construction, validity and practical application of the MLQ, it is a reliable tool when used in conjunction with other leadership selection and development tools and offers much promise in evaluating leadership ability and behaviours, follower reactions and situational attributes. In 1978, Burns proposed that leaders could be distinguished in terms of transactional or transformational leaders (Parry and Bryman, 2006, p 450). In his work, transactional leadership consisted of an exchange process between the leader and follower in which the leader offers a reward for compliance with his or her contract (Parry and Bryman, 2006, p 450) and is based on rewards and punishment. Transformational leadership on the other hand is the process of motivating followers or colleagues to do more than originally expected using charisma, influence and vision by transferring followers attitudes, beliefs and values, as opposed to simply gaining compliance (Parry and Bryman, 2006, p 450; Rafferty and Griffin, 2004, p 330). However, Burns proposed that a leader was either transformational or transactional, and that the two were at opposite ends of the spectrum. In the 1980s, Basss approach was able to draw heavily on Burns work, but hypothesised that successful leaders were transformational and transactional. Bass theory represented a combination of transformational, transactional and non-transactional laissez-faire leadership factors (Antonakis et al, 2003, p 264). Bass propositioned that transformational and transactional leadership styles are separate and independent dimensions that appear simultaneously (Tejeda, Scandura and Pillai, 2001, p 33) and that the transactional attributes would deliver the basic needs of an organisation, while the transformational attributes would foster change and encourage commitment. He believed that every leader displays each of the styles to some extent and called this the Full Range of Leadership Model (Bass, 1998, p. 7). However an effective leader would demonstrate transformational attributes more frequently then transactional attributes. Central to Bass research is the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Hartog, Muijen and Koopman, 1997, p21). The MLQ is a leadership assessment tool that measures leadership behaviour and style. It is the primary measurement tool of research on the theory (Tejeda et al, 2001, p 34). In its most recent format, the MLQ is a short but comprehensive survey of 45 items which measures a full range of leadership styles (http://www.cornerstonecoaching.com.au/MLQ_Questionnaire.html, 20/09/2010).  The MLQ is designed to evaluate the factors that are related to leadership and how these factors determine the efficiency and effectiveness of a leader. It assesses the transformational leadership with five scales: 1) idealised attributes, 2) idealised behaviours, 3) inspirational motivation, 4) intellectual stimulation and 5) individualised characterisation (Muenjohn and Armstrong, 2008, p 5). Three scales are identified as characteristics of transactional leadership: 1) contingent reward, 2) man agement by exception: active and management by exception: passive and one scale for Non-leadership, laissez-faire (Muenjohn and Armstrong, 2008, p 5). It also assesses the outcome of leadership in terms of effectiveness and satisfaction. The current version of the MLQ (Form 5X) was developed based on the results of studies of the previous versions and the feedback of leadership scholars who revised the questionnaire (XXXXX IN Antonakis, Avolio and Sivasubramaniam, 2003, p 265) and is used widely in research and across organisations in leadership assessment and development. Leadership Theories and the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire The Multifactor Leadership Model has become one of the most widely cited theory of leadership, and while Bass (Bass, 1990b, in Hartog et al, 1997, p19) claims that the transactional-transformational leadership model is a new paradigm, and does not replace or explain other models, the model does in fact integrate ideas from classic and contemporary theories of leadership. Up until the late 1940s, the trait-based approach dominated leadership approaches (Parry and Bryman, 2006, p 448). These theories isolated characteristics that differentiated leaders from non-leaders based on the premise that leaders are born, to an extent, and that the skills required are innate and are not developed over time. The Multifactor Leadership Theory is not a trait based approach however it is evident that there are certain traits exhibited that differentiate a transformational leader from a transactional leader or traits that are not considered as leadership qualities. For instance, confidence (question 25), pride (question 10), optimism (question 9), resiliance and enthusiasm (question 13) are seen as traits of transformational leaders. One question in the MLQ states my associates and followers trust me and exhibit the values I portrayà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (www.mlq.com.au, accessed 21/09/2010). In this question, trustworthiness is a trait that is perceived as important for transformational leadership. In fact, Bass approach is based on the concept of the trait or characteristic of charisma. However what the MLQ does not do is state that leadership traits are innate, and that leaders cannot be developed. A key advantage of the MLQ is that it is a tool to assess leadership skills and develop the leader into becoming more effective, efficient and transformational and show where development is required. From inception, the multifactor leadership model incorporated earlier behavioural approaches to leadership (Sashkin, 2004 in Antonakis, Cianciolo and Stenberg, 2004, p 175). Behaviour dimensions are actions that inspires by communicating a vision, actions that express considerations and behaviours that engage and challenge followers to think for themselves (Sashkin, 2004 in Antonakis et al, 2004, p 175). One of the best known approaches to behavioural leadership theories stems from research undertaken by a group of researchers at the Ohio State University. Stogdill and Coons identified two dimensions of leadership in their studies, referred to as consideration or employee-oriented leadership and initiating structure or production-oriented leadership (Antonakis, Cianciolo and Stenberg, 2004, p 7), not dissimilar to transactional, or task focussed leadership. It is important to note that unlike trait based approaches to leadership which focuses on characteristics that is perceived to make a good leader, behavioural approaches emphasise that behaviour can be changed, and through training, individuals can be better leaders. The MLQ is a tool that assesses current behaviour and can be used as a tool to assist in developing individuals to better leaders. In 1967, Fiedlar proposed a contingency model of leadership effectiveness which measured the leadership orientation of the person completing it (Fiedlar, 1967 in Parry and Byrman, 2006, p 449). The leader was either human-relations oriented, that is, considerate of the subordinates feelings and concerned with fostering good relations, or task-motivated (Parry and Byrman, 2006, p 449). Like Burns approach on transactional and transformational leadership, Fiedlar proposed that leaders were either human-relations oriented or task motivated, and could alternate depending on the situational factors. The MLQ however shows that for a leader to be effective, both task oriented attributes and transformation attributes needed to be displayed. The two were not co-dependent. The theory focuses on contingent reward as motivation, and is similar to transactional leader attributes. However, the theory highlighted that since a leaders personality does not change, it is instead necessary to change th e situational factors instead, such as task structure, position power or leader-member relations (Parry and Byrman, 2006, p 449). The MLQ is an assessment tool based on analysing a persons behaviours and attributes and developing or changing their behaviour to transformational leaders rather than transactional or non-leaders rather than the need to change the environment or situation. The multifactor model seems to stem from research conducted from the late 1980s onwards and the theories that became known as contemporary perspectives. One such example is leadership through emotional intelligence (EI). EI is consistently associated with good leadership and is the ability to understand and manage feelings, moods and emotions in self and others (Kupers and Weibler, 2005, p 369). The connection between emotions and transformational leadership was assessed by research conducted in 2001 by Palmer, Walls and Burgess by measuring emotional intelligence in 43 participants in managerial roles using the Trait Meta Mood Scale, and effective transformational leadership attributes were measured by the MLQ. It was found that there was a positive correlation between EI and transformational leadership, a factor that has not been missed by Bass, who declared that leadership is as much emotional and subjective as rational and objective in effect (1999, p 19 in Kupers and Weibler, 20 05, p 369). This and other research has suggested that EI is an important component of transformational leadership, and the ability to utilise transactional attributes when required. In fact, transformational leaders would need to use emotion to communicate vision to gain a response from their subordinates. It is interesting to note that the EI model became prevalent from 1980 onwards. Perhaps for this reason Bass and team insisted that their multifactor leader model was not based on previous classic models of leadership but asserted that there was a positive relationship between EI and transformational leadership. While this report does not propose that the multifactor model does not have any similarities to classic models, it is evident that the model has more similarity with contemporary models of leadership. Further correlations can be made between the multifactor model and the level 5 leadership model and inspirational leadership model. The level 5 leadership model is based on the premise that an effective leader exhibits attributes effective leadership, competent management, contributing team membership and a highly capable individual and can in addition demonstrate personal humility and professional will. Inspirational leadership is a combination of level 5 leadership and EI. Inspirational leaders selectively show their own weaknesses, dare to be different, rely on intuition and ability to read interpersonal cues and practice tough empathy. Attributes of the multifactor model, including inspirational motivations, simulation and consideration are similar to the concepts presented above. Effective leaders will also be transformational and transactional, therefore showing both competent manager and highly capable individual attributes. Strengths and Weaknesses of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire Practical Application The MLQ is essentially based on the premise that for a leader to be successful, transactional and transformational attributes need to be displayed. This has also made the test popular and valid in a variety of situations and environments, including structured, task oriented workplaces, such as manufacturing or in a professional services environment, where employee empowerment, charisma and visionary leadership are prevalent. In addition, it is essentially a 360 degree feedback tool, that is used not only to develop the leader but to identify the thoughts of subordinates, thereby increasing accuracy, acceptance, better understanding of performance and gaps in performance and indicates the leadership skills an individual needs to develop to be effective. Based on the results, ineffective leaders can be differentiated from effective leaders. Furthermore, its successful application in a variety of organisations is highlighted by the fact that it has been translated in other languages to decrease the language barrier or cultural implications. What it does not take into account however, is other cultural implications such as preferred or required leadership style or social factors, and research has revealed that different cultures place value certain leadership styles and behaviours to a greater extent than others. Certain cultures for instance, may not value individualise d consideration for instance as much as the cultural norms of collectivist societies in China or India for instance, so attributes valued in the multifactor model may not be ideal in certain cultures. In a study by Shahin and Wright (2004), they highlighted that cooperation and coordination were important for social integration among people in Egypt, stemming from social culture and its dependence on Islam (Shahin and Wright, 2004, 9 203). The MLQ does not take into account social culture and cultural implications and for this reason further questions were added measuring social integration. Shahin and Wright (2004) also noted that the form in which char ismatic leadership portrayed in the Egyptian context has a strong element of authoritarianism (p 504). The leadership style exhibits strong elements of transactional leadership behaviours, where contingent reward and management by exception are required to ensure subordinates perform (Shahin and Wright, 2004, 9 504). Therefore the ideal measurements of the MLQ needed to be customised to suit the context. In addition Validity and Design As noted above, key to the multifactor model is based on the premise that the theoretical background stems from classic and contemporary leadership, and is based on developing leaders, not that leaders are born. The MLQ is widely accepted and used and extensive research has been conducted that highlights its validity and reliability to measure management behaviour and performance (Agle, 1993; Carless, Mann and Wearing, 1995; Lowe, Kroek and Sivasubramaniam, 1996). It has emerged from a through and rigorous research process over the past fifteen years (Whitelaw, 2001, p 1). Part of its success in implementation in todays business world is its success in integrating emotional intelligence into the attributes of transformation leaders. Based on the results, training, support, mentoring and coaching can be provided to the leader. It would be very difficult in criticising the MLQ in terms of its application, as the multifactor leadership questionnaire (MLQ) is widely used in academic research and also a broad range of different organisations across many cultures (Anatonakis et al, 2003; Krickbride, 2006). The evidence of this is the fact that the MLQ has been translated into ten different languages, and has extensively been used in organisations globally in the following sectors in many sectors such as training, consulting, financial and insurance institutes, law firms, hospitals, mining and manufacturing businesses, media, government, marketing, gaming industry, defence, retail, property businesses, education etc. However, research (House, 1997) reveals that different cultures vary immensely in the value they give to certain leadership styles and behaviours. This may lead to a problem in the potential application of the MLQ as leadership behaviour that is valued by the MLQ (e.g. individualised consideration t owards subordinates) might violate certain cultural norms of collectivist societies e.g. India and Japan. Furthermore, a research conducted by Connelly, Zaccharo, Threlfall, Marks and Mumford (2002) reveals that questionnaires like MLQ in which subordinates and peers provide evaluation, fail to measure certain types of leadership skills, as they might be less observable e.g. knowledge, problem-solving and judgement capabilities.   The ***** provides valuable insights into the effectiveness of public organizations, especially on the point that the criteria are multiple, shifting, and conflicting (Rainey, 2003) The MLQ is capable of measuring the extent to which leadership is ***** considerate, providing the ***** with support, mentoring, ***** coaching (*****, p. 5). Established ***** (Bass). In addition, the MLQ: *****. Differentiates effective and ineffective leaders ***** all organizational levels; 2. Assesses the effectiveness ***** an entire organizations leadership; 3. Is valid ***** cultures ***** types of organizations; *****. Is ***** to administer, requires 15 minutes to complete; 5. Has ***** extensively ***** and validated; 6. The MLQ provides the best relationship ***** survey data to organizational outcome; and, 7. The MLQ has become ***** benchmark measure of Transformational Leadership (***** *****) The data developed from the ***** to date have been shown to highly correlate with ***** with effectiveness, performance, ***** satisfaction (Bass, p. 83). In addition, the feedback of MLQ results can also be used for mentoring, counseling, coaching, and training; MLQ scores might also be used profitably to identify executives to head ***** ventures (Bass, p. 84). Theoretical background is based on developing leaders, not that leaders are born EI aspects present in MLQ Plenty of research and used widely, accepted 360 degree feedback, tool to identify the thoughts of subordinates practical application design validity Weaknesses of Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire Cultural factors e.g. org culture Environmental factors, economy (crisis) Type of organisation e.g. manufacturing organisation might need diff style of leadership to professional services firm Reliance on honesty Self-evaluation Does not consider variance in thought or ideology Some questions may not apply in certain situations Opportunities and Threats of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire practical application design validity Conclusion