The Theory of Human Caring Essay Example

The Theory of Human Caring Paper Jean Watson’s Theory of Human Caring represents a dramatic paradigm shift, and as a result, it has been a source of great controversy since its introduction. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the comprehension of the theory, the implications of caring, and the application of the theory to practice in an attempt to show that the Theory of Human Caring is valuable to the nursing profession. Sources include published literature, including the work of Jean Watson. Jean Watson’s Theory of Human Caring: Is It Valuable to the Profession of Nursing? Jean Watson’s Theory of Human Caring represents a dramatic paradigm shift, and as a result, it has been a source of great controversy since its introduction. It is still a relatively new theory, with the first publication in 1979 in Watson’s book Nursing: The Philosophy and Science of Caring. Possibly due to its newness, there is still much debate over the ease of comprehension of her work, the implications of caring within her theory, and whether her theory is applicable to nursing practice in today’s world of advanced technology and budget cuts. We will write a custom essay sample on The Theory of Human Caring specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Theory of Human Caring specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Theory of Human Caring specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer This paper will explore each of these issues regarding the theory, and attempt to demonstrate that Watson’s Theory of Human Caring definitely has a place in nursing practice today. A Summary of Jean Watson’s Theory of Human Caring Jean Watson views nursing as an art and a science, which has the goal of preserving the worth of humankind through the process of caring. Caring is seen as the essence of nursing and a moral ideal: Caring†¦has to become a will, an intention, a commitment, and a conscious judgment that manifests itself in concrete acts. Human care, as a moral ideal, also transcends the act and goes beyond the specific act of an individual nurse and produces collective acts of the nursing profession that have important consequences for human civilization (Watson, 1988, p. 32). Also, Watson stresses the subjectivity of the human experience, and uses the term phenomenal field to describe a person’s individual frame of reference, which is influenced by past experiences and can never be truly known by another person. Anotheraspect of Watson’s theory is transpersonal caring, in which nurse and patient coparticipate in the goal of achieving health (Watson, 1988, p. 70). Watson (1988) defines health as harmony between mind, body and soul, and illness as a subjective disharmony between mind, body, and soul. As well, integral to Watson’s theory are the 10 carative factors that serve as a â€Å"framework for providing a structure and order for nursing phenomena† (Watson, 1997, p. 50). The 10 carative factors are as follows: 1) Humanistic-altruistic system of values 2) Faith-hope 3) Sensitivity to self and others 4) Helping-trusting, human care relationship 5) Expressing positive and negative feelings 6) Creative problem-solving caring process 7) Transpersonal teaching-learning 8) Supportive, protective, and/or corrective mental, physical, societal, and spiritual environment 9) Human needs assistance 10) Existential-phenomenological-spiritual forces. All of this is presupposed by a knowledge base and clinical competence (Watson, 1988, p. 75). Watson (1988) believes that nursing must separate itself from the reductionistic views of the traditional science medical paradigm and focus on movement towards a human science nursing paradigm. Watson also readily acknowledges that her theory is a work in progress, and she â€Å"invites participants to co-create the model’s furtheremergence† (Watson, 1997, p. 52). This is in accordance with her theory in that she believes that everything is in an unending process of becoming (Watson, 1988). Discussion of The Theory of Human Caring Comprehension Watson’s Theory of Caring has been influenced by a variety of disciplines outside of nursing. For example, Watson (1997) acknowledged that aspects of psychology, existential-phenomenological philosophy, and metaphysics helped to mold her theory. As a result, authors such as Cohen (1991) and Barnhart et al. (as cited in McCance, McKenna, Boore, 1999) believe that one must have background knowledge of these disciplines in order to fully understand Watson’s theory. Furthermore, it has been suggested that nurses may not possess this knowledge (McCance et al. , 1999), which may make the theory less appealing. To expand, McKenna (as cited in McCance et al. , 1999) stated that â€Å"theory should be easily understood if it is to gain the attention and commitment of hard pressed clinicians† (p. 1393). However, it must be stated that nurses should not be viewed as incapable of acquiring knowledge in disciplines such as psychology and philosophy. As well, the application of Watson’s theory in a variety of different areas of nursing (which will be discussed later in this paper) suggests that nurses have been able to utilize the theory successfully, regardless of educational background. Watson has also been criticized for using language and concepts in her model that are difficult to understand (Barker Reynolds, as cited in Sourial, 1996), which has the potential to limit the theory’s success. Sourial (1996) found that Watson frequently substituted different terms for the same idea without explanation, leading to confusion (i. e. , caring transaction, caring moment and caring occasion are equivalent terms). Sourial(1996) suggested that using â€Å"consistent terminology†¦[and] additional diagrams would help to clarify and make her [Watson’s] theory more concise† (p. 403). Conversely, Walker (1996) argued that Watson â€Å"explain[s] abstract phenomena by using ordinary language in extraordinary ways† (p. 992), and that she â€Å" weaves concepts and ideas together with the elegant simplicity of a work of literature† (p. 993). Furthermore, students of the College of Nursing in London who were taught to use the Theory of Human Caring, â€Å"found the language in Watson’s model difficult, describing it as ‘American’ at first, but they were quickly able to find examples from their experience and use Watson’s concepts skillfully and fluently† (Allan, 1996, p. 43). It is easy to see from the above sources that the perceived difficulty of Watson’s language is a subjective experience.

Master Management and Change Essay

Master Management and Change Essay Master: Management and Change Essay Creating Sustainable Change: A new paradigm in Project Management Ron Schipper Senior Consultant, Van Aetsveld Project and Change management, Amersfoort, the Netherlands Harry Rorije Principal Consultant, Van Aetsveld Project and Change management, Amersfoort, the Netherlands Gilbert Silvius 1 Professor of Business, ICT and Innovation, University of Applied Sciences, Utrecht, the Netherlands Principal Consultant, Van Aetsveld Project and Change management, Amersfoort, the Netherlands Abstract Projects can be seen as a system to realize change in organizations. This change can involve new work processes, new policies, new resources, new products or services, etc. Sustainable change in these policies, processes, products, etc, requires different behavior of the workers or employees of the organization. It is, however, this aspect of change that most projects seem to oversee. In this paper, we will argue that changing or influencing the behavior of an organization’s employees is a crucial element in realizing change. The contemporary insights in human behavior and behavioral change, however, seem to contradict the more mechanical approach to projects that most project management methodologies prescribe. Controlling behavioral change, if possible, may require a different paradigm to projects and organizational change. Our paper will shed some light on this contradictory topic and will provide practical suggestions for the integration of behavioral change aspec ts in project management. Keywords Project management, Sustainable Change, Management of Change Introduction Projects can be considered as temporary organizations (Turner and Mà ¼ller, 2003) that deliver (any kind of) change to organizations, products, services, policies or assets (Gareis, 2010). Successful change most often requires a change of human behavior and therefore is influenced by the motivation to overcome resistance to change (Kotter, 1996). Gareis (2010), however, concludes that this kind of change is not adequately recognized in project management and that â€Å"specific change methods are to be applied according to the specific change requirements†. This paper provides an overview and practical suggestions for the integration of behavioral change aspects in both portfolio and project management. The question asked is how to realize sustainable behavioral change (when that is intended with the project)? Many publications (e.g. Boonstra, 2004; Cummings and Worley, 1996) show a managerial perspective on change: behavioral change is something that can be plan ned and managed top-down. However, this perspective is increasingly being questioned. People are free individuals who decide for themselves to show certain behavior. All attempts made in the past to force members of the organization to behave differently and the rewarding or punishing act on it has never led to sustainable behavioral change. It led to short-term changes with fall-back (Anderson, 2002; Beer 1990; Homan, 2005). This perspective creates this paper’s main question: which circumstances need to be created by project in order to make sustainable behavioral change occur? In this paper we focus on how the ‘forgotten group’ in organizations, the employees, experience change in projects. In the next paragraph will elaborate on what is meant with this ‘forgotten group’. We will then look at change from the perspective of this group. How do employees experience changes? How do they handle changes? When are they effected by change? When do they ch ange their behavior permanently? By practicing this perspective we will gained interesting insights, for example that managing for shorter lead times for projects actually hinders sustainable behavioral change. The paper will be concluded with some recommendations on how to connect with employees and integrate behavioral change into projects and project portfolios. 1 Corresponding author: Utrecht University of Applied Sciences, Padualaan 101, 3584 CH Utrecht,

ESSAY Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Essay Example to their customers by pursuing a cost leadership strategy; this strategy seeks to reduce production and transportation costs as much possible to offer a competitive product (Jaquier 2010). These savings can then be passed onto the customer, who then receives a cheap product. This type of organizational can be used as a short-term measure to increase sales and attract customers, but there is little profit to be made over the long term. Another organizational approach that retailers can use to add value to their customers is a differentiation strategy. In this approach, an organization seeks to make products that are of superior value to competitors’ products. The focus is not so much on price but on offering products that are hard to find and of high quality. Customers who are attracted to this strategy prefer products that are high quality even though the price may be a little more than market average. These types of customers are often loyal to one brand because they place so much emphasis on brand quality. The last approach used by retailers to add value to their customers is a focus approach, which is a combination of the first two strategies. In this approach, retailers attempt to offer quality products at low prices. This approach is one that is very hard to implement during the initial stages of an organization’s entry to the market because of the level of expertise required. Retailers that are already established in the market more often than not have the tools required to implement such an approach. This generally comes about through a well-developed supply chain that can reduce unnecessary costs. One retailer that provides a lot of value to its customers is Wal-Mart. Wal-Mart is an established retailer in the American market that pursues a focus strategy; no other retailer can match Wal-Mart’s low prices with the same amount of quality. Wal-Mart’s motto of â€Å"Low Prices. Every Day. On Everything† (DInnocenzio 2011) is one that is attractive to

Cost, Volume, and Profit Formulas Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Cost, Volume, and Profit Formulas - Essay Example The preferable outcome in most businesses is to sell as many units as possible, thus high volumes are preferable. The selling price is the unitary price of each product. It can be calculated by dividing the total sales by the amount of units sold. If a company had sales of $5,000 and it sold 100 units the unitary price is $50 per unit. There are two types of costs. These two types of costs are variable costs and fixed costs. A variable cost can be defined as a cost of labor, material, or overhead that changes according to the change in the volume of production units (Investorwords, 2011). Variable cost per unit can be calculated dividing total variable costs by the quantity of units sold. The second type of cost is fixed costs. Fixed costs are costs that do not change with the volume of sales. The total amount of fixed costs is the same every month. Some examples of fixed costs include rent, managerial salaries, and depreciation (Moneyterms, 2011). The total fixed expenses component is calculated by adding up all the fixed costs of the company. The sales mix is the relative proportion in which a company’s products are sold (Garrison & Noreen, 2003).

Communication in careers, and The Self Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Communication in careers, and The Self - Essay Example I thought he is the right candidate for he is very friendly and open in his views. I was also interested in how hospitals are run; and Paul’s experience in this domain made him the ideal candidate. Paul is 47 years of age and works as a Human Resources Manager in a private hospital and what follows is the interview I had with him. Q. What were the greatest challenges you’ve met in your career so far? A. That’s an interesting question, for there is no straight-forward answer to it. I’ve risen to the current position as a HR Manager through a lot of hard work and perseverance. I began my career as an office assistant in a private hospital. From those humble beginnings I’ve now risen to a position where I am completely responsible for ensuring proper management of Human Resources in the hospital. It has not been an easy ride. There were times when I seriously doubted my compatibility to the profession. There were phases in which the monotony and drudge ry of work got the better of me and I seriously thought of quitting. In this respect, the biggest challenge I faced was finding creative ways of making work interesting. And by successfully managing to do so, I learned to apply creative thinking in other facets of life too, which is again a rewarding experience. Q. How important are communication skills to be a successful HR Manager? A. Very important. Indeed, clear and proper communication is essential in almost all professions, but its role is accentuated in the domain of HR. My responsibility as a HR manager is to communicate the vision and mission statements of the organization to all my subordinates. While textual dispersal of this information in the form of pamphlets and brochures is important, it is equally important to convey such messages in everyday interactions. In my years of experience, I learnt that leading by example is the best way to communicate the core philosophy of the hospital. In the private hospital that I wor k for presently, this philosophy is to put the interests of the patients ahead of profits. So the accounts department is notified of this priority, and thereby they are a bit lenient in billing patients from poor backgrounds. Q. How do you manage to make team members work in unison? A. I understand the importance of team ethic and try to inculcate it into my team members. There is an inherent contradiction here, for employees join the organization for fulfilling their personal needs, wants and aspirations. It would then be necessary that such personal motives do not overpower the needs of the hospital; and that employees try to synchronize their goals with that of organization’s goals. My job as a HR manager is to help them in this process, by suggesting and showcasing common ground between these two seemingly opposing tendencies. Q. What is the biggest change you’ve seen in communication methods and mediums in the last twenty years? A. There has been a tremendous chan ge in the way communication takes place these days. When I started out, telephones were the cutting edge in communications technology. But so much progress has happened since then. Today, we integrate personal medical records of all patients into an online-database, which can be cross accessed by physicians down the line. Technology has affected the diagnostic and prognostic procedures as well, making the quality of healthcare much improved.

The Alma Ata Declaration Still Relevant

The Alma Ata Declaration Still Relevant The Alma Ata Declaration was formally adopted at the International Conference on Primary Health Care in Alma Ata (in present Kazakhstan) in September 1978 (WHO, 1978). It identifies and stresses the need for an immediate action by all governments, all health and development workers and the world community to promote and protect world health through Primary Health Care (PHC) (ibid). This has been identified by the Declaration as the key towards achieving a level of health that will allow for a socially and productive life by the year 2000. The principles of this declaration have been built on three (3) key aspects which include: Equity It acknowledges the fact that every individual has the right to health and the realisation of this requires action across the health sector as well as other social and economic sectors. Participation It also identifies and recognises the need for full participation of communities in the planning, organisation, implementation, operation and control of primary health care with the use of local or national available resource. Partnership It strongly supports the idea of Partnership and collaboration between government, World Health Organisation (WHO) and UNICEF, other international organisations, multilateral and bilateral agencies, non-governmental organisations, funding agencies, all health workers and the world community towards supporting the commitment to primary health care as well as increasing financial and technical support especially in developing countries. Other important principles identified by the Declaration include: health promotion and the appropriate use of resources. The declaration calls on all governments to formulate strategies, policies and actions to launch and sustain primary health care and incorporate it into the national health system. It was endorsed by the World Health Assembly in 1978 hence enshrining it into the policy of the WHO (Horder, 1983). Background Back in the 1960s and 1970s, many developing countries of the world gained independence from their colonial leaders. In efforts to provide good quality healthcare service for the population, these new governments established teaching hospitals, medical and nursing schools most of which were located in urban areas (Hall Taylor, 2003) thus creating a problem of access to good quality health service especially for people that reside in rural communities. Successful programmes were initiated by Tanzania, Sudan, Venezuela and China in the 1960s and 1970s to provide primary care health services that was basic as well as comprehensive (Benyoussef Christian, 1977; Bennett, 1979). It is on the basis of these programmes that the term Primary Health Care was derived (Hall Taylor, 2003). In low income countries, the primary health care strategy as described by the Alma Ata was very influential in setting health policy during the 1980s however in high income countries such as the United Kingdom, it was considered irrelevant on the presumption that the level of primary care service was already well developed (Green et al., 2007). Primary health care has been defined in the Declaration of Alma Ata as; essential health care based on practical, scientifically sound and socially acceptable methods and technology made universally accessible to individuals and families in the community through their full participation and at a cost that the community and country can afford to maintain at every stage of their development in the spirit of self reliance and self-determination. It forms an integral part both of the countrys health system, of which it is the central function and main focus, and of the overall social and economic development of the community. It is the first level of contact of individuals, the family and community with the national health system bringing health care as close as possible to where people live and work, and constitutes the first element of a continuing health care process. (WHO, 1978) The Alma Ata Declaration brought about a shift on emphasis towards preventive health, training of multipurpose paramedical workers and community based workers (Muldoon et al., 2006). In order to achieve the global target of health for all by the year 2000, goals were being set by the WHO (WHO, 1981) some of which include: At least 5% of gross national product is spent on health. A reasonable percentage of the national health expenditure is devoted to local health care. Equitably distribution of resources At least 90% of new-borne infants have a birth weight of at least 2500g. The infant mortality rate for all identifiable subgroups is below 50 per 1000 live-births. Life expectancy at birth is over 60 years. Adult literacy rate for both men and women exceeds 70%. Trained personnel for attending pregnancy and child birth and caring for children for at least 1 year of age. It has been over 30 years now that the Declaration of Alma Ata was adopted by the WHO. A look at the current health trend around the world especially in developing countries such Nigeria, Ghana, Niger, Zimbabwe and so many others will reveal that the goal of achieving health for all by the year 2000 through primary health care has not been a reality. Although there have been reasonable improvement in immunisation, sanitation and access to safe water, there is still impediments in providing equitable access to essential care worldwide (WHO, 2010) What went wrong? Lawn et al. (2008) explain that the Cold War significantly impeded the desired impact expectation of the Alma Ata Declaration in the sense that global developmental policy at that time was dominated by neo-liberal macro economical and social policies. The effect of this on poorer countries of the world particularly in Africa was implementation of structural adjustment programmes in effort to reduce budget deficit through devaluations in local currency and cuts in public spending. This resulted in the removal of subsidies, cost recovery in the health sector and cut backs in the number of medical health practitioners that could be hired. The introduction of user charges and encouragement of privatisation of services during this period had an untoward effect on poor people who could not afford to pay for such services. The combination of these factors hence resulted in part to the crippling of the quality of service that can be provided at the primary care level. People who could afford such service resorted to health service offered at secondary or tertiary care which in most cases is difficult to access. The introduction of a new concept of Selective Primary Health Care as proposed within a year of the adoption of the Alma Ata Declaration by Walsh Warren (1979) changed the dimension of primary health care. This interim approach was proposed due to the difficulty experienced in initiating comprehensive primary health care services in countries with authoritarian leadership (Waterston, 2008). Walsh Warren (1979) argued that until comprehensive primary health care can be made available to all, services that are targeted to the most important diseases may be the most effective intervention for improving health of a population. The measures suggested include; immunisation, oral rehydration, breast feeding and the use of anti malarias. This selective approach was considered as being more feasible, measurable, rapid and less risky, taking away decision making and control away from the community and placing it upon consultants with technical expertise hence making it more attractive partic ularly to funding agencies (Lawn et al., 2008). An example of a selective primary care approach is the Expanded Programme on Immunisation (EPI). Selective primary health care is concerned with providing solutions to particular diseases such as HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis while comprehensive primary care as proposed the Alma Ata begins with providing a strong community infrastructure and involvement towards tackling health issues (Baum, 2007). The shift in maternal, new-borne and child health as a result of programmes that removes control from the community hinders the actualisation of the goals of primary health care as emphasized by the Alma Ata Declaration. The reversal of policy in the 1990s by the WHO and other UN agencies to discourage traditional birth attendants and promoting facility based birth with skilled personnel (Koblinsky et al., 2006) is an example of such. The World Banks report Investing in Health which was published in 1993 saw the World Bank become a great influence and major key player in international public health as such robbing the WHO of the prestigious position (Baum, 2007). It considers investments for interventions that only have the best impact on population health as such removing local control and advocating a vertical approach to health. This move counteracts the process of the social change described by the Alma Ata Declaration which is necessary for realisation of its goals. These go to show that consistency both in leadership (locally and globally), policy as well as good evidence (to drive policy making and actions), are important ingredients for global initiatives to succeed. What went right? Even with the several elements that prevailed against the achievement of the collective goals of the Alma Ata Declaration, several case studies show that when provided with a favourable environment, primary health care as prescribed by the Alma Ata is sufficient to bring about a significant improvement in the health status of any population or country. Case study 1: Primary Health Care in Gambia Using data obtained from a longitudinal study conducted by the United Kingdom Medical Research Council over a 15 year period for a population of about 17,000 people in 40 villages in Gambia, Hill et al. (2000) compared infant and child mortality between village with and without primary health care. The extra services that were provided in the villages with primary health care include: a village health worker, a paid community nurse for every 5 villages and a trained traditional birth attendant. Maternal and child health services with vaccination programme were accessible to residents of both primary health care and non primary health care villages. There was marked improvement in infant and under 5 mortality in both sets of villages. After primary health care system was established in 1983, infant mortality dropped from 134/1000 in 1982 83 to 69/1000 in 1992 94 in the primary health care villages and from 155/1000 to 91/1000 in non primary health care villages over the same period of time. Between 1982 and 83 and 1992-94, the death rates for children aged 1-4 fell from 42/1000 to 28/1000 in the primary health care villages and from 45/1000 to 38/1000 in the non primary health care villages. However, in 1994 when supervision of primary health care was weakened, infant mortality rate in primary health care villages rose to 89/1000 for primary health care village in 1994 96. The rate in non primary health care village fell to 78/1000 for this period. The implementation and supervision of primary health care is associated with a significant effect on infant mortality rates for these groups of villages that benefitted from the programme. Case study 2: Under 5 mortality and income of 30 countries To assess the progress for primary health care in countries since Alma Ata, Rohde et al. (2008) analysed life expectancy relative to national income and HIV prevalence in order to identify over achieving or under achieving countries. The study focused on 30 low income and middle income countries with the highest year reduction of mortality among children less than 5 years of age and it described coverage and equity of primary health care as well as other non health sector actions. The 30 countries in question have scaled up selective primary care (immunisation, family planning) and 14 of these countries have progressed to comprehensive primary care which has been marked with high coverage of skilled birth attendants. Equity with skilled birth attendance coverage across income groups was accessed as well as access to clean water and gender inequality in literacy. These 30 countries were grouped into countries with selective primary care; mixture of selective and comprehensive primary health care; and comprehensive primary health care alone. The major players among countries with comprehensive primary health care are Thailand, Brazil, Cuba, China and Vietnam. Overall, Thailand tops the list and it has comprehensive primary health care. Maternal, new-borne and child health in Thailand were prioritised even before Alma Ata and has been able to increase coverage for immunisation and family planning interventions. The Government investment in district health systems provided a foundation for comprehensive primary health care in maternal, new-borne and child health as well as other essential services. Community health volunteers also played a significant role towards Thailands medical advancement. They promoted the use of water sealed latrines to improve sanitation and were very instrumental towards the decline of protein calorie malnutrition in pr e-school children in the past 20 years (WHO, 2010). Participation of the community health volunteers is a major source of community involvement into health care of Thailand (ibid). The following factors were identified as important lessons from high achieving countries: accountable leadership and consistent national policy progress with time; building coverage of care and comprehensive health systems with time; community and family empowerment; district level focus which is supported by data to set priorities for funding, track results as well as identify and redress disparities; and prioritising equity, removing financial barriers for poorest families and protection against unavoidable health cost. Case study 3: Integration of cognitive behaviour based therapy into routine primary health care work in rural Pakistan Rahman et al. (2008) in a cluster-randomised control study in Pakistan shows the benefits derived when cognitive behaviour therapy in postnatal depression is integrated with community based primary health care. Training was provided to the primary health care workers in the intervention group to deliver psychological intervention. The health care workers also receive monthly supervision and monitoring. Significant benefit (lower depression and disability scores, overall functioning and perception of social support) was reported in the intervention group to suggest that this kind of measures as supported by the Alma Ata can drive the initiative towards Health for all. It is evident and clear that countries that practiced comprehensive primary health care as enshrined by the Alma Ata reaped great benefits in terms of population health improvement. Although it has been argued that comprehensive primary health care is too idealistic, expensive and unattainable (Hall Taylor, 2003), evidence suggest that it is more likely to deliver better health outcomes with greater public satisfaction (Macinko et al., 2003). This kind of care can deal with up to 90% of health demands in low income countries (World Bank, 1994). Relevance of Alma Ata in this present time Our present world that has been characterised by marked epidemiological transition in health. Low income countries as well as high income ones are faced with increasing prevalence of non communicable as well as chronic disabling disease (Gillam, 2008) hence, the existence of infectious diseases (malaria, HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis etc), and diseases like cardiovascular disease and diabetes. For low income countries such as sub-Sahara African Countries, this constitutes a major health problem because their health systems are mainly oriented towards providing services inclined with maternal and child health, acute or episodic illnesses. As such current health systems need to have the capacity to provide effective management for the current disease trend. The Alma Ata provides a foundation for how such effective health service can be provided. Because, primary health care is the first line of contact an individual has to health care, it is thus very influential in determining community heal th especially when the community is fully empowered to participate. As societies modernise, as it is the case in our current world, the level of participation increases and people want to have a say in what affects their lives (Garland Oliver, 2004). Thus, the level participation in health care is better off and more powerful in this present time than it was when it was the Alma Ata was adopted. Evidence suggest that the values as enshrined by the Alma Ata are becoming the mainstream of modernising societies and it is a reflection of the way people look at health and what they expect from their health care system (WHO, 2008). Alma Ata failed in some countries because the Government of such countries refused to put strategies towards sustaining a strong and vibrant primary health care system that is appropriate to the health needs of the community such that access is improved, participation and partnership is encouraged and health is improved in general. There is no goal standard guideline or manual on Alma Ata but individual governments have to develop their own strategies which should be well suited towards meeting their own needs. The Alma Ata founding principles is still relevant towards achieving these goals especially as it brings health care to peoples door step as it encourages training of people to efficiently and effectively deliver health services. Evidence has shown that there is a greater range of cost effective interventions than was available 30 years ago (Jamison et al., 2006). It is for these reasons that primary health care is essential towards achieving the millennium development goals e specially as it concerns child survival, maternal health, and HIV/AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis and other diseases. The Alma Ata emphasises the importance of collaboration as an important tool towards introducing, developing and maintaining primary health care. This partnership as supported by the Alma Ata is essential to increase technical and financial support to primary health care especially in low income countries. It is a current trend to find an increasing mixture of private and public health systems as well as increasing private-public partnerships. Governments, donor and private organisations are now working together to promote and protect health unlike after Alma Ata (OECD, 2005). There is also increased funding and this is shifting from selective global funds to strengthening health systems through sector wide approaches (Salama et al., 2008). This kind of collaborations is a step in the right direction and when it is strengthened according to the principles of the Alma Ata, it will not only improve the buoyancy of the health care system but also improve participation and equity in the sense that health care is more qualitative and accessible to the people. The years that followed after adoption of the Alma Ata by WHO member states was characterised by unstable political leadership and military dictatorship especially among low income countries which lead to neglect of the health sector. This created unfriendly environments for the development and maintenance of stable primary health care systems. In this current times however, most countries have embraced the democratic system of leadership that promotes equity, participation and partnership. Health equity is continually enjoying prominence in the dialogue of political leaders and ministries of health (Dahlgren Whitehead, 2006). Thus, the environment being created is friendlier to the Alma Ata hence making it more relevant in this time. Thirty years ago, the values of equity, people centeredness, community participation and self determination embraced by the Alma Ata was considered as being radical but today these values have become widely share expectations for health (WHO, 2008). Our current time has been marked by gross technological advancement which was not available in the 1970s. There is also an increased wealth of knowledge and literature on health and on the growing health inequalities between and within countries all of which was not available 30 years ago. All these put together provides a relevant foundation to support the Alma Ata in the present time making it more relevant in delivering effective health care service. Conclusion The prevailing political and economic situation around the world make the Alma Ata more relevant than it was in 1978. However, there is still need for more to be done. There is need for the revitalisation of primary health care according to the tenets of the Alma Ata and progress made should be consistently monitored. There is also the need for an increased commitment to the virtues of health for all as well as increased commitment of resources towards primary health care which should be driven by good evidence base. It is important that emphasis be changed from single interventions that produce short term or immediate results to interventions that will create an integrated, long term and a sustainable health care system. Even with the challenges being faced so far with full implementation of the Alma Ata, the ideals are relevant still relevant now more than ever.

Drugs And Crime :: essays research papers

Proposition 215 Medical Marijuana Initiative Section 1. Section 11362.5 is added to the Health and Safety Code, to read: 11362.5. (a) This section shall be known and may be cited as the Compassionate Use Act of 1996. (b) (l) The people of the State of California hereby find and declare that the purposes of the Compassionate Use Act of 1996 are as follows: (A) To ensure that seriously ill Californians have the right to obtain and use marijuana for medical purposes where that medical use is deemed appropriate and has been recommended by a physician who has determined that the person's health would benefit from the use of marijuana in the treatment of cancer, anorexia, AIDS, chronic pain, spasticity, glaucoma, arthritis, migraine, or any other illness for which marijuana provides relief. (B) To ensure that patients and their primary caregivers who obtain and use marijuana for medical purposes upon the recommendation of a physician are not subject to criminal prosecution or sanction. (C) To encourage the federal and state governments to implement a plan to provide for the safe and affordable distribution of marijuana to all patients in medical need of marijuana. (2) Nothing in this act shall be construed to supersede legislation prohibiting persons from engaging in conduct that endangers others, nor to condone the diversion of marijuana for nonmedical purposes. With standing any other provision of law, no physician in this state shall be punished, or denied any right or privilege, for having recommended marijuana to a patient for medical purposes. (d) Section 11357, relating to the possession of marijuana, and Section 11358, relating to the cultivation of marijuana, shall not apply to a patient, or to a patient's primary caregiver, who possesses or cultivates marijuana for the personal medical purposes of the patient upon the written or oral recommendation or approval of a physician. (e) For the purposes of this section, "primary caregiver" means the individual designated by the person exempted under this act who has consistently assumed responsibility for the housing, health, or safety of that person. Sec. 2. If any provision of this measure or the application thereof to any person or circumstance is held invalid, that invalidity shall not a ffect other provisions or applications of the measure which can be given effect without the invalid provision or application, and to this en d the provisions of this measure are severable. On November 5th, Californians approved Prop.

Marketing and Food Essay

This literature review will focus on exploring marketing strategies employed when selling food. I will be looking at what influence these marketing strategies have on consumers decision making process and the effectiveness of these strategies. It is clear that consumers don’t all buy the same things and I am interested to find out what causes this difference in product selection. There are many things that can influence these decisions, from the placement of products or the aesthetics of the product. Food companies may also take location or population into account when choosing what product to sell and where to sell it. Demographical marketing strategies use population statistics as a way of finding out what products will sell best. Lars Perner[1] uses age demographic as an example. â€Å"a firm interested in entering the market for sports drinks in a given country, or worldwide, might investigate the number of people between the ages of fifteen and thirty-five, who would constitute a particularly significant market.† In some countries such as Germany, it has been noted that the birth rate is dropping significantly, in this sort of market, a company may steer away from creating a baby food product in favour of a product geared towards older people, this is due to the old age market being larger than the young age market. Perner also discusses ‘upward pull’ marketing. This takes advantage of social class in order to increase ones desire for a product. By Portraying a product as something the upper class society would consume, it can take advantage of the consumers desire to advance their social class. Companies such as Haagen-Daas, who display their product as a luxury ice-cream, and several wine brands make use of this strategy. The layout of a supermarket also has a dramatic effect on food sales. One example is the location of the entrance into supermarkets. One study[2] suggests that if the entrance to a supermarket is located on the right side, it encourages counter-clockwise movement throughout the supermarket. Whereas if the entrance is on the left, it encourages clockwise movement. The study claims â€Å"counter-clockwise shoppers spend $2 more per trip, than clockwise shoppers.† Products that have a large profit margin are usually located around the perimeter of the supermarket, as most shoppers favour travelling around the perimeter than traversing up and down the isles. Fresh fruit and vegetable sections are usually located at the start or end of the supermarket, and are presented as a cleaner and more welcoming area to the rest of the supermarket as most shoppers spend the most money in this section. Items placed at the ends of aisles serve as and introduction the items the customer will find in that aisle, the items in the centre of the aisle will receive less time with the customer, so items that will make more of a profit will be placed towards the end of aisles. Commonly purchased items such as milk or bread are generally located at the back of a supermarket, forcing the consumer to travel through many other products in order to get the item they need. It is then that advertising and aesthetic marketing come into play. Different tactics are employed in certain aisles in order to force customers into decisions. One example may be[3] the use of music and lights in junk food aisles. By using loud music and bright lights, the supermarket may cause the customer to be overwhelmed and make an impulse decision on what to buy, they may reach out for something that would comfort them, such as their favourite junk food. In a different situation, a supermarket may employ the use of dim lights and relaxing music, in order to convince the customer to take their time and spend more time in the supermarket, in turn having them buy more products. Some supermarkets tend to move items around from time to time in order to confuse their customers, having them search through all the aisles in order to find the product, picking up other products along the way. The location of the product is also important, most customers tend to only look at products at are at eye level. The most expensive items will also be found at eye level, with better deals being hidden away above or below. The packaging of a product can also influence the decisions of a consumer. †More expensive brands tend to have fancier labelling then generic brands. Therefore we assume the quality is better and are willing to pay higher prices, regardless of whether that is true[4]† Supermarkets also make use of the senses in order to draw customers in and attempt to force them into buying something they didn’t intend to. They will cater to sight by using colours to evoke certain feelings, light blues and pinks may be used around baby food or sweet sections in order to appeal to children. Reds may be used around alcoholic beverages in order to appeal to consumers emotions such as anger or love, both of which have ties with alcohol and the colour red. They may bake fresh cakes and cookies in the bakery section to draw customers into buying the products due to the appealing smell. These findings provide evidence of a definite link between the marketing strategies used by supermarkets and brands, and the effect they have on sales of products. A number of ways in which strategies are employed have been noted, such as demographical marketing, placement of products and product aesthetics. Bibliography Perner, L. (2008). Food Marketing. Food Marketing. [ONLINE] Available at:http://www.consumerpsychologist.com/food_marketing.html (2008) The science of supermarket psychology | tribalinsight. The science of supermarket psychology | tribalinsight. [ONLINE] Available at:http://tribalinsight.wordpress.com/2008/08/19/supermarket-psychology/ (2008) Supermarket tricks. 2008, Supermarket tricks. [ONLINE] Available at: http://today.ninemsn.com.au/moneyandconsumer/598695/supermarket-tricks ———————– [1]Perner, L. (2008). Food Marketing. Food Marketing. [ONLINE] Available at:http://www.consumerpsychologist.com/food_marketing.html [2](2008) The science of supermarket psychology | tribalinsight. The science of supermarket psychology | tribalinsight. [ONLINE] Available at:http://tribalinsight.wordpress.com/2008/08/19/supermarket-psychology/ [3](2008) Supermarket tricks. 2008, Supermarket tricks. [ONLINE] Available at: http://today.ninemsn.com.au/moneyandconsumer/598695/supermarket-tricks [4](2008) Supermarket tricks. 2008, Supermarket tricks. [ONLINE] Available at: http://today.ninemsn.com.au/moneyandconsumer/598695/supermarket-tricks

Free Essays on Romero Movie

In the movie â€Å"Romero† the peoples right to worship God is violently taken away from them. This can be seen when Romero is elected archbishop of El Salvador and is attending a fancy party in his honor. While this is happening, a priest, and friend of Romero, is giving the sacrament of Christ to his people in the center of their town. While the people receive the sacrament music is playing and people are happy and rejoicing. This joyous celebration is soon silenced by an army of soldiers who come into the town to bring an end to church services. The people, helpless and unarmed, run in panic as the soldiers open fire upon them. Another violation of the worship of God can be seen when Romero arrives at a church that has been turned into an army barracks. Romero walks in to the church and announces to the soldiers that he has come to remove the Blessed Sacrament of Christ. A hotheaded soldier responds to Romero’s request by unloading a round of bullets into the tabernacle, which shatters the crucifix hanging above the altar. Romero stands astonished and unbelieving by the utter desecration that the soldier has done, and then leaves. Romero pauses outside the church where a crowd has gathered wanting to attend church, but Romero is unsure what he will do next. Suddenly, Romero collects the courage to face the evil within the church, and he turns around and enters the church. Romero brushes past the hotheaded soldier and kneels to gather the consecrated wafers with shaky hands. The soldier fires another round above Romero's head. Not stopped by the gunfire, Romero continues to gather the wafers. The soldier then shoves Romero with his boot and throws Romero out of the church. But Romero isn't quite finished. He returns yet again, this time to restore the church to its rightful owner, the people. As Romero walks with the people towards the church, the soldiers try to scare the people with their guns. The people however are n... Free Essays on Romero Movie Free Essays on Romero Movie In the movie â€Å"Romero† the peoples right to worship God is violently taken away from them. This can be seen when Romero is elected archbishop of El Salvador and is attending a fancy party in his honor. While this is happening, a priest, and friend of Romero, is giving the sacrament of Christ to his people in the center of their town. While the people receive the sacrament music is playing and people are happy and rejoicing. This joyous celebration is soon silenced by an army of soldiers who come into the town to bring an end to church services. The people, helpless and unarmed, run in panic as the soldiers open fire upon them. Another violation of the worship of God can be seen when Romero arrives at a church that has been turned into an army barracks. Romero walks in to the church and announces to the soldiers that he has come to remove the Blessed Sacrament of Christ. A hotheaded soldier responds to Romero’s request by unloading a round of bullets into the tabernacle, which shatters the crucifix hanging above the altar. Romero stands astonished and unbelieving by the utter desecration that the soldier has done, and then leaves. Romero pauses outside the church where a crowd has gathered wanting to attend church, but Romero is unsure what he will do next. Suddenly, Romero collects the courage to face the evil within the church, and he turns around and enters the church. Romero brushes past the hotheaded soldier and kneels to gather the consecrated wafers with shaky hands. The soldier fires another round above Romero's head. Not stopped by the gunfire, Romero continues to gather the wafers. The soldier then shoves Romero with his boot and throws Romero out of the church. But Romero isn't quite finished. He returns yet again, this time to restore the church to its rightful owner, the people. As Romero walks with the people towards the church, the soldiers try to scare the people with their guns. The people however are n...

Newtons Second Law Coursework Essays

Newtons Second Law Coursework Essays Newtons Second Law Coursework Essay Newtons Second Law Coursework Essay Isaac Newtons second Law of Motion states that, Force = Mass x Acceleration. For this project I intend to prove or disprove this theory. The fact that the Law has survived 300 years of evolving science provides much of the needed evidence that the Law is truthful and works but I will do the experiment to determine my own set of results.I hope to answer the question:Is there a link between mass and acceleration ?Newtons Second LawNewtons Second Law is a way of finding the force that is acting on a certain object by using the known mass of the object and the projected acceleration and that the mass is inversely proportional to the acceleration.For example, A bus keeps going forward because the forces of acceleration and friction are unbalanced but as soon as these forces become balanced than the bus will keep a steady speed. It is this that I am going to investigate.The Law can be tested quite easily by using a simple test, involving a trolley, a ramp and some weights. The experiment i s explained below.Input VariableI will be using Force as the input variable for this experiment. I will change the force with which the trolley will be pulled down the ramp with and will see what affect this has on the acceleration.Output VariableI will be measuring the accelleration of the trolley as it runs down the ramp. I will compare this to the mass and then I will see if there is any connection and if the law does actually work.PlanThe object I intend to use as the mass is a three-wheeled trolley. I will measure the trolleys mass before using it in the experiment. I will use a 2 metre long runway to measure the acceleration of the trolley. The runway will be slightly elevated so that the amount of friction that is acting on the trolley will be at a minimum. To combat the friction when the string and weights are pulling the trolley down the ramp, I will use a pulley to make sure as little friction as possible will occur. I will also have the ramp at an angle which will produce as little friction as possible. This is important because if I didnt do this then the friction that would occur would slow down the trolley and I would get anomalous results. I will use differing amounts of weights to pull the trolley down the runway. We are planning to do 5 experiments, each with a different force. The first will have a resultant force of 1 Newton, the second will have a force of 2 Newtons and so on. To measure the rate of acceleration we will use a ticker timer. This will record accurately the increase in velocity and then using either 5 or 10 tick lengths we can work out the recorded acceleration and compare it to the projected acceleration that we have worked out using Newtons second Law. The experiment will be set up as shown belowTicker Timer Ticker Tape Trolley Ramp PulleyI think that this is the best way to perform this experiment because if you did it, as some of the class did, by pulling the trolley using a force meter, then it would be quite difficult to pull the trolley at a steady force and so would not get such accurate readings.To work out the results I will use the formula, Acceleration = Force A= FMass MOrOutput = InputVariableIt is easier for a smaller, lighter object to be moved rather than a larger heavier object. For a small object, with a smaller mass to accelerate at the same speed as a larger object with a larger mass, the force would need to be increased with the size of the object. In this experiment, though, the force will be constant, as the variable being changed is mass, therefore, the acceleration will decrease as the mass increases.A list of the equipment I will need is shown below:1. A Trolley2. A Two Metre long ramp3. A Ticker Timer4. Ticker Tape5. A Pulley so when we let the weights drop there will be as little friction as possible.6. String7. 5x 1Newton weightsWe will measure the acceleration caused by a certain weight three times to make sure we get the right results.The Variables* Mass* Acceleration* For ce* FrictionSee page one for variables being tested.How to make it a fair testTo make the experiment fair, the only variable that I will change is the amount of weight that is used to pull the trolley down the runway. All the other components i.e. length of string, height of runway, and stated variables will be kept the same.PredictionBased on the results that we obtained when we used Newtons Theory to work out the projected accelerations for each different weight, I would say that the more weight that is applied to pull the trolley down the ramp the more the trolley will accelerate. This is because the trolley has an unbalanced force which means it will accelerate. The object will continue to accelerate until the forces (gravity and friction) are balanced at which time it will keep travelling at a constant force (speed) until the forces become unbalanced again which will make the trolley slow down.Following the theory that the mass is inversely proportional to the acceleration, I predict that when all the results have been calculated, and placed on a graph, it will look similar to the following:As the mass increases, theAcceleration increases and as theMass decreases, the accelerationAcceleration decreases.massSafetyWhen performing the experiments there are going to be a lot of loose wires from the ticker timer, the power pack etc. I will have to make sure that these are kept well out of the way and will not harm anyone. The use of weights could be a hazard so they will have to be handled properly and not thrown or dropped anywhere near peoples feet or hands. Because we are using a 2 metre long ramp, it will be too long to fit on a desk, I will have to find a suitable place to put this otherwise people will hurt themselves on the protruding end of it.ResultsThis is a table of my groups resultsForce (Newtons)Mass (g)Theoretical AccelerationRecorded Acceleration (m/s/s )11721.50.58 m/s/s0.36010.58 m/s/s0.38010.58 m/s/s0.31021821.51.097 m/s/s0.81121.097 m/s/s0. 70221.097 m/s/s0.70531921.51.561 m/s/s1.20831.561 m/s/s1.19831.561 m/s/s1.21142021.51.979 m/s/s1.33041.979 m/s/s1.30141.979 m/s/s1.32652121.52.356 m/s/s1.48052.356 m/s/s1.56052.356 m/s/s1.534My results are highlighted in redBelow is a graph of my results. I have used averages of the 3 recorded acceleration in the graph.

Chauvet Cave Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Chauvet Cave - Assignment Example The art is simply something worth looking at. In Nine Lives, by Dalrymple, the people and places could be compared to the Chauvet Cave. This is in the sense that they all possess certain characteristics. The following paper will look into the comparisons between the cave and the places and people recounted in Nine Lives. In comparison, the cave and the places in India could share very many similarities. For example, the places in India have the same symbolism as the cave in Southern France. The people there look up to their land to find peace and a sense of belonging. They all can relate to the places they are in for it is their source of life. They are used to those places and cannot trade it for any other. In the cave during the early periods when the paintings were being done, the people went there to reveal themselves to the world (Clottes, p. 25). They could identify what it was that really mattered to them and paint on the walls of the cave. The history of people is embedded in the places they have stayed. Their roots are firmly tied to their place of origin. The art in the cave could bear huge similarities to the places in Nine Lives since the history of a civilisation are painted on the cave walls. The history of any people in a given place at a given period of time is very important. The story of their existence is also firmly told to the generations that follow (Curtis, p. 12). This way, the generations that come into being know of their origins, and they end up telling it to the next generations. In Nine Lives, India bears this symbolism. Another similarity is the way culture and tradition is being maintained. It is through all this that the culture of a people can go on without being eroded or corrupted. The preservation of the Chauvet Cave is done so as to keep the ways of certain people intact (Clottes, p. 27). These ways are often seen as pure and the interference of other ways and/or mannerisms could be very unhealthy. In Nine Lives, this is als o seen with people keeping the traditions of their people alive through poetry, song and dance (performing arts). Moreover, the people of these areas are recognised through these works of art performed. It is through it that their spirit as a people comes alive. Through the cave art and/or paintings, the way of worship was recognised. The kind of gods they worshiped and the entire process. It is the same as in Nine Lives. The people’s form of worship was described to the people, how the sacrifices were made and the stages involved in it. This showed that in both these settings, communication to the people was made clear to them in cultural ways. This was to ensure that they were not forgotten through time (Guy, p. 25). However, the differences in the two are very distinct. The way and manner in which the cave paintings have been skilfully done is something to be admired. There is nothing naive about the art in the walls. This is unlike the ways and manner in which the people described by Dalrymple carry out their daily rituals. This cave represents the time taken by a certain group of people to relay a message to the people who will read it. The people of India as described in Nine Lives do not give a reason as to why and how the rituals come about and how the message meant for them is passed through (Curtis, p. 20). Also, the cave had the art preserved in a way that no one could tamper with the message it relayed. Unlike the

How public opinion and the media influence health care policy Essay

How public opinion and the media influence health care policy - Essay Example Any one or all of these processes can prompt or even hinder political action thereby advancing an issue to an elevated level of consideration and has the ability to instigate substitute solutions or hammer it down absolutely. On the contrary, need of community approval and dominant resistance has the ability to keep an issue low on the public's agenda and subsequently on the policy agenda as well. While it is usually the government officials who eventually make a decision about which issues will be acted upon, interest groups, researchers, academics, consultants, the media, political parties and the public does have the dominant capability of influencing and determining the ultimate course of action. An excellent example is Andrea Baker's analysis of AIDS coverage suggests that the media may have encouraged policy-makers to respond to the AIDS crisis by helping to educate them about the potential threat to mainstream constituents. (Andrea J. Baker, The Portrayal of AIDS in the Media: An Analysis of Articles in the New York Times in The Social Dimensions of AIDS: Method and Theory, D.A. Feldman and T.M. Johnson, eds. New York: Praeger, 1986, pp. 163-178.) Public interest groups, now with the amplification of tec... Media attention to a problem influences decision-making since policymakers appreciate the role of mass media in shaping public opinion and they want public opinion to constantly be on their side.We live in a fast-paced world and because sometimes the public's attention span is limited, the media may cover a story prominently but only for a short period of time. The media has to constantly and unwaveringly press on significant issues by keeping them alive and discussed as this has a direct affect on public policy. The media may help to educate policy-makers, who often cite mainstream news media as important sources of information about policy issues, including health care (Carol H. Weiss, What America's Leaders Read. Public Opinion Quarterly, 1974, pp. 1-21) The media only covers an issue when it is interesting and issues related to the general and specific health of the people are gaining more and more importance with each passing day. These are sometimes complex issues that necessitating a great deal of sustained media attention, and education, background information, solid scientific study and impeccable experts on health issues are invaluable to the overall success of the efforts of the press, the public and policymakers. The media acts as a communiqu device within the policy community welcoming people scattered both inside and outside the government dealing with similar problems each day, to communicate in indirect ways. The interaction of government officials may not be on a daily basis, but they along with most of the public read newspapers or receive some form of news via the media. Communicate with the public and policymakers can be thus achieved by effectively