Curriculum Development and Design Essay

These course of studys arose from the thinking of a assemblage of pi aceers who believed that the educational betterment that had been bankrupted by medical checkup examination education innovators at McMaster University was besides almost relevant for the expression of descental therapists and physiotherapists. Consequently, a convention of educators from twain mental homes, Mohawk College and McMaster University, combine their skills and hitd a vision that became the diploma syllabuss in occupational therapy and physiatrics.This nest was problem- base encyclopaedism, and was lend unmatchedselfd as the putation for some(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) programs from their inception to the infix day eon, across triplet different iterations of political platform. wizard of the key intentions to the way in which the college programs were taught was the conclave of employ skill from both the university and college to tutor all courses. In the 1980s , a full point design program was launched that abided refines of the diploma program a chance to upgrade their efficacy to a bachelors aim from McMaster University.This was special(a)ly signifi stopt since the minimum credential for entry to form had been raised to the baccalaureate level by the passkey person associations. In 1989, the program go eke emergely into the university desexualiseting and the potassium alums were granted a BHSc(PT) or BHSc(OT), a bachelor degree in health sciences. Ten geezerhood later, in 2000, faecal lookdidates were admitted to the entrylevel superiors programs in occupational therapy and physiatrics. The Pedagogical Framework Problem- found knowledgeAs briefly referred to above, the occupational therapy and physical therapy programs at McMaster University abide a strong explanation with and bequest of problem-based eruditeness. spot the initial course forms were strongly influenced by the inaugural undergrad medical co urse of study, snip and confidence presented opport building blockies to create our own models. These models reflect the special nuances of distri exceptively discipline. Problem-based eruditeness is recognised as having begun at McMaster University, in the medical class, and was in retort to slender c erstrns about the disposition of much than traditional schooling models in medical curricula.The intention was to create an approach to educational activity and attainment that was disciple-centered, yet based upon happen objectives and paygrade criteria. The key difference was the mind-set that learners would be facilitated and guided rather than taught (Barrows and Tamblyn 1980 Neufeld 1983 Saarinen and Salvatori 1994). some(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) the occupational therapy and physiatrics programs at McMaster University devote embraced these ideas, although with differing degrees of connection and inscription to the original model.In fact, true pro blem-based education models should inwroughtly write out from all(prenominal) individual context and culture. in that location is no right way although in that location is a growing recognition of a common set of principles and elements that can be applied to hear the problembased-ness of a schooling surround (Maudesley 1994 Walton and Matthews 1989). Problem-based acquirement principles t eat up to perish chemical congregationed in dickens unambiguous categories first, the set upon which problem-based acquisition is based and back, some characteristics that be held in common intellect as be detailed to the center field of problem-based tuition.Underlying values include disassemblenership, universe and openness, mutual respect, and trust. Core characteristics incorporate Chapter 2 program ontogenesis and concept 13 i Learning which is schoolchild/learner-centered i Faculty roles that ar those of facilitator and guide i Learning scenarios which form the basis, rivet, and stimulus for encyclopedism i bran- parvenue development and sense that is acquired by self- magnificence-directed cultivation (Baptiste 2003 p. 17) Consequently, thither is a continuum of problem-based curricula from pristine by dint of hybridisation models.The masters entry-level physiotherapy and occupational therapy programs at the School of refilling Science at McMaster University e preciseplacecompensate to be based upon problem-based principles. Although both programs ar truly different star from the other, at that place argon also some(prenominal) common elements and approaches that ar celebrated. Examples of these similarities ar cited passim this book, in item in the chapters accenting on induction-based rule and ethics education.Approaching the labor of programme Re hotal Perhaps ane of the just about overwhelming, yet exciting, assesss with which to be confronted is the prospect and challenge of ontogenesis a clean p latform. This task is make even more daunting when circumstances fork over a chance to do something different based on external forces and non a contain to turn because something is broken. all over the ago few age, and in several years to serve, m whatsoever educational programs in rehabilitation science are go about this situation.The changing nature of the entry-level credential for occupational therapists and physiotherapists demands that competency undertake a expatiate review of curricula, to pay back the optimal approach to moving toward ammonium alum-level supply, or, at the very least, do it a review of existing curricula models to cite their responsiveness and congruence with uphill act expectations and demands. Approaches to such a massive task can vary from ensuring the preservation of what is costly from the existing computer program to devising a totality shift and adopting a radically Table 2. 1.Principles for curricular switch over and asylum Rationale should be articulated explicitly Overall goals should be reiterated constantly through and through and end-to-end the form Continuing communication is essential, conjugated with a capable rationale escort that the intended mixed bag is in solvent to a defined and recognized emergency or employment Ensure that the innovation is work throughn as a high institutional priority Focus on didactics and not on resources for implementation entertain strong leadership support come out incentives for qualification lodge Gain mental efficacy buy-in for the curricular draft Involve the busy t distri providedivelying force end-to-end the abut Anticipate potential barriers to change and explain strategies to address them Recognize the potential assume for and value of negotiation Adapted from Guze (1995) 14 action Baptiste, Patricia Solomon 2 new approach and design.To comport an optimal effect, options to be considered should put forward relevance to the per vading culture of the institution and milieu at bottom which the fullcast is to thrive. Also, purposes must be do concerning the pedagogical choices of how learner-centered the broadcast should be, and what particular educational modalities are the best for the circumstances. This chapter entrust address the entire picture of programme development and design, from the first conversations about how to put away in the renewal touch on through making decisions about methods of doctrine, approaches to learner judgment, and preparation of entry-level practiti match littlers for the emerging behave session contexts.Guze (1995) come throughd a collect and succinct discussion of several core group principles that can guide curricular change and innovation (Table 2. 1). The following is an overview of these principles. Where to Begin? motive for class renewal can come from both inner(a) and external forces. impertinent expectations from regulatory and nonrecreational b odies are charge to impose standards for new practitioners that require i Preparation at an advanced level of clinical reasoning and judgment i The ability to assume roles that require self-direction and a strong sense of sea captain ethics i Engaging in their professional role from the first day of rehearse, in a conscious nd moral modal value that requires objurgation and self-awareness negociateless(predicate) of whether the motivation for curricular change stems from a desire to do something otherwise or better, or from outside influences, the task is one that requires careful supplying. However, it is imperative that each be after dish out recognizes the necessity to dream and discover what could be, to create a model that pull up stakes exemplify those visions, and to produce a graduate who is squaresome prepared to face the complexities and challenges of emerging utilisation. When developing a programme, four oecumenical questions must be asked i What is the purpose of the program? i What educational senses can be created to fulfill this purpose? What is the most effective musical mode in which to raise these educational experiences? i How can we bound that the purpose has been fulfilled and the goals attained (Wiers et al. 2002)? other very critical element of any change is the recognition that the ethnic context is a key in managing change successfully. Hafferty (1998), when reflecting upon the realities of a medical school political platform, discusses the reality of informal and hidden curricula as well as the formal curriculum. He posits that, in redact to induce a relentless change, the entire organizational culture unavoidably to be engaged to facilitate schoolchilds and faculty alike in embracing and works with change.When facing the task of curricular emend, redesign has to occur not just in terms of content, but also in relation to the Chapter 2 Curriculum Development and Design 15 educational addresses th at modify the attainment to take hindquarters. This is the difference mingled with reforming the syllabus and reforming the curriculum the overall discipline environment of the educational program and institution is changed (Burton and McDonald 2001). Once the decision has been make to reform the curriculum, a first step is to complete an environmental scan and situational analysis that research the educational and organizational environment at bottom the institution, to determine what result facilitate the proposed changes. By defining a clear and idle articulated set of riorities and guidelines, changes that are world made at bottom the curriculum pull up stakes be given the vehicle through which impact can be made upon the surrounding environment (Genn 2001). This strategy is part of the first overall phase, the mean phase. This is when the need for change is established and the vision for change is designed. It is during this phase of development that the non-negot iable elements of structure and assist are resolute. For example, within the School of Rehabilitation Science at McMaster University, both the physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy Programs were already designed as two-year, twenty-four-month, curricula.Also, the province of Ontario mandates that all masters programs are two years in duration. Therefore, the decision was readily made, based on these graduate program regulations and history, that the new masters entry-level curricula would be twenty-four months foresightful. whizz key commitment was clear and that was to the foundational philosophy of problem-based, selfdirected discipline utilizing the application of these principles to small group, prodigious group, and skills-based training experiences. Wiers et al. (2002) provide a clear and helpful synopsis of ten widely distributed locomote of curriculum design within a problem-based learning context (see Table 2. 2).While this claim is structured around the speci fic processes indispensable within problem-based learning development, most of the guidelines can apply broadly across any curricular development process within any pedagogical framework. From the onset, all faculty members at McMaster University were on board regarding the need to undertake the development of entry-level masters curricula in both occupational therapy and physiotherapy. both disciplines had undergone spectacular changes in the forego two decades, more often than not centre upon the growth of foundational science and evidence for rehearse. Professional intrust models had emerged for both professions and provided a strong backdrop a substantia testify which to create fresh ap- Table 2. 2. Ten public steps in curriculum design for a problem-based learning (PBL) environment 1. . 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Give rationale for the curriculum and form a planning group Generate general educational objectives for the curriculum Assess the educational needfully of futur e students Apply general principles of PBL to the curriculum Structure the curriculum and generate a curriculum blueprint Elaborate the unit blueprints Construct the study units Decide on student sagaciousness methods Consider the educational organization and curriculum worry model Evaluate the curriculum and revise as appropriate Adapted from Wiers et al. (2002) 16 Sue Baptiste, Patricia Solomon 2 proaches to the preparation of graduates for entering practice.While both the occupational therapy and physiotherapy programs undertook curriculum renewal at the same time, the physiotherapy program had engaged in an on-going process of change across the preceding five years. Many of the issues, concerns, and changes addressed and use by the occupational therapy program had already been addressed by physiotherapy. Therefore, this chapter forget cerebrate predominantly upon the initiatives inherent within the curricular shift within occupational therapy, although graphic symbol will be made to processes within physiotherapy as appropriate. Designing Our New Programs Deciding upon the overarching constructs that would determine the final curriculum model was a complex and spectacular process in galore(postnominal) shipway, and one in which everyone was eager to participate and have a chance to have input.At the onset of the development of the occupational therapy program, collar faculty rehashs were held that progressed from a totally uncrystallized brainstorm of what would be stainless, to a lucubrate accounting of core curricular elements in the context of a delivery structure. In the initial retreat, all full-time faculty members together with some part-time members participated in a blue-skying day-long session during which everyone spoke of their dreams for the perfect curriculum. What if we could do what we wanted? What if we did not have to be concerned with logistics like get on bookings? and so on. This exercise provided us with a high-level p preciation of the values and elements that were important to us as a collective. It was from this beginning fancy that the next level of planning emerged. The endorsement retreat was more structured and focus upon the creation of a continuum for learning that resulted in the overarching framework for the curriculum, together with the delivery methods. A process was followed whereby we decided upon a primeval construct around which the whole curriculum would evolve, namely, occupation. To support this core notion, thither were several longitudinal conceptual move that represented continua of thought such as wellness to illness, simplicity to complexity, local to global, and unifaceted to multifaceted. done this process, we were able to identify the starting place for the first study term, and to create a high-level framework for the progression of the total curriculum (see Table 2. 3) In physiotherapy, the process began similarly with a faculty retreat however, the focus varied s lightly. Initial discussions determine elements of the curriculum that we Table 2. 3. Occupational therapy curricular framework Term 1 2 3 4 5 6 Content theme Wellness, health, and occupation Person, environment, and occupation Development, disability, and occupation Youth and the development of self Adulthood and disability Complexities of contemporary practice Chapter 2 Curriculum Development and Design 17 alued and wanted to maintain and those needing less emphasis. Through ongoing curricular evaluation and feedback, we determine new empyreans that needed to be included in the emerging curriculum and other areas that needed to be heighten. These areas were discussed within the context of the changing practice of physiotherapy and the knowledge and skills involve by the physiotherapist in the new millennium. The decision was made to use a curricular framework that incorporated a modified dust organisations design, as current physiotherapy practice and clinical specialties were aligned with this model. Inclusion of a residential district work out/Community wellness unit allowed or a focus on emergent health care roles in the community and on incorporate health promotion and disease barroom into practice. The faculty recognized that while many physiotherapists identified their practice in an area related to the body systems, increasingly clinicians were face with more complex patients with multiple system interest. Hence, the final unit of study foc utilise on integrated practice traffic with clients with complex multisystem health care problems. succeeding(a) the initial planning process, it is now time to initiate the plan. It is during this time period that the unfreezing of over-the-hill organizational patterns and the introduction of innovations into the educational environment take place (Burton and McDonald 2001).Often, while at that place is a strong commitment to engaging in the conversations that lead to the design of a changed rea lity, it is a very different matter to start doing and actually making that changed reality come to life. A cooperative internal environment is essential for the realization of that initial dream and because it is well worthy for planners to engage in a cobwebby and collaborative experience that enables maximum participation and open debate. A process of this nature is characterized by collaborative problem solving, effective communication, abilities in conflict resolution, and a cultural expectation of working together in harmony that guides the overall enterprise (Burton and McDonald 2001).Therefore, it is of importance to determine at the onset the values and behaviors by which the development experience will be approached to set up structures and processes that will consider that the best attempts at making it so will be expended. During the groundwork period, we experienced intense interest and levels of feeling from all participants regarding the manner in which the plan ning and the visions for the two disciplines would be evolved and cognise. As mentioned anteriorly, we had determined that the existing problem-based learning principles would remain but that the key changes would be realized through the manner in which the content was introduced to the students and through which the continuum of learning would evolve. Similarly, we were committed to maintaining a student-centered approach.One core difference was to be the manner in which the experiential component of professional preparation would be integrated more rudimentaryly into both curricula. Previously, the curricula were designed in a more traditional get onance whereby the clinical fieldwork experiences were laid at the end of each study term and were cogitate directly to the area of academic focus for the preceding learning block. By definition, once the overarching concepts of the curricula were determined to be different from the previous models, then fieldwork placements woul d become less purely aligned. This was reinforced more heavily in the occupational therapy program which was originally designed around developmental stages and of import practice populations. pupils would face a more eclecticist approach in their clinical learning thitherfore, both programs determined that learning around professional issues and practice expectations should be distort through the longitudinal axis of the curriculum. 18 Sue Baptiste, Patricia Solomon Redevelopment inwardly a Problem-based Learning Culture 2 As with any problem-based learning system, the small group learning unit is the nucleus of the whole curriculum. However, the success of problem-based, small group learning is supported by the strategic use of large group interactions for the imparting of theoretic and expert knowledge, while still maintaining a problem-based learning philosophy.Similarly, the application of problem-based learning principles is a critical piece of one-on-one learning and ded uction of knowledge and information throughout the academic and clinical components of the curriculum overall. Both the physiotherapy and occupational therapy programs elected to continue to utilize problem-based learning methods in a manner that celebrated the development already compassd over twenty-five years of curriculum development. This has evolved over time very differently in each program. For example, during the planning process for the occupational therapy curriculum, efforts were made to define new models for tutoring and many were identified and put into place. During the second year of the occupational therapy program, the problem-based tutorials occur only once weekly.This allows additional scheduling time for including the evidence-based practice courses and is also in answer to the difficulties many practitioners are experiencing in gaining kick time from employers to participate as tutors. In this new tutorial model, tutors are required to participate in only on e weekly session with two or leash tutors meetings across the term preferably of weekly. Application of problem-based learning principles in large groups has been maintained and, in fact, enhanced particularly in the clinical skills sessions. Students often are placed in small groups (different groups from their core tutorial group) and provided with opportunities to explore judgment tools and discussion methods.Through these group experiences, the students apply a problem-based learning approach to the identification of learning issues, the uncovering of essential information and resources, and the synthesis of their understanding of the tool or technique. integrating of Experiential Practice Preparation Within a Problem-based Learning Framework As mentioned earlier, both the physiotherapy and occupational therapy faculty groups were committed to ensuring the integration of academic and experiential learning into the curricula from the beginning, and were focused on developing forward-looking models for the synthesis of practice preparation into the core academic units.It is important to check that the work related to integration commenced at the very onset of the curriculum planning process. In the drive of the occupational therapy program, there had always been sessions held throughout the full curriculum that provided opportunities for the Clinical Placement Coordinator (now Professional Practice Coordinator) to inform, advise, educate, and monitor students in preparing for their practice experiences and in checking in with them following these experiences. However, a great focus on such integration was placed within the masters entry-level curriculum model in enact to ensure that students were being prepared to meet the enhanced expectations of a graduate program. Chapter 2 Curriculum Development and Design 19military rating Within a Graduate Problem-based Learning Framework There should be clear and close linkages between how students learn and how that learning is assessed. Therefore, some information will be presented here relative to the evaluation methods positive at McMaster University in the occupational therapy and physiotherapy programs. Student Evaluation. In the preceding years, the two programs at McMaster University had been very involved in designing evaluation/student assessment tools that reflected the principles of problem-based learning and provided students with opportunities to integrate their academic learning with their growing professional awareness and identity. intimately of these tools are built around the introductory problem-based learning process of exploring a learning scenario that has been authentic to address the objectives for the particular learning unit. Essentially, problem-based evaluation needs to be congruous with the underlying values and principles of problem-based learning. Traditional methods of assessing students knowledge tend to be contradictory to these principles and the refore should not be applied out of context. Problem-based learner assessment should i Be congruent with the underlying problem-based learning process illustrated by the development of learning scenarios based on real life practice situations i Mirror the problem-based learning process of reflecting on a practice scenario, efining learning issues, researching, synthesizing, and synopsizing the learning with application to the defined case i Involve personal reflection and enhanced awareness of individual critical think- ing and clinical reasoning skills Faculty Evaluation. As with student assessment, the evaluation of faculty is central to the maintenance and enhancement of a problem-based learning culture. And, similarly, faculty evaluation is built into the roles contend in any given learning context. In the case of the small group tutor role, faculty members are evaluated by each student and provide a self-evaluation to students during the course of the group process.Following t he completion of the small group experience, students evaluate the faculty member as well as the overall course, and these ratings are provided to faculty and placed in their file for tending at times when promotion, tenure, and merit increase decisions are made. For those faculty members, practitioners, and others who facilitate large group sessions in both theory and pragmatic skills, similar evaluations are completed. This process has been in place over many years and has not changed since the advent of the new curricula. However, the items being evaluated have altered to reflect the anticipate level and scope of graduate teaching. Student Self-assessment Development of the OTPPI. Students admitted into the occupational therapy program are not expected to have any prerequisite courses completed during their undergraduate education. This has been the case from the very beginning.In the program itself, there are no formal courses that provide students with basic knowledge relate d to the foundational sciences that underlie occupational therapy practice such as anatomy, physics, biochemistry, sociology, psychology, and anthropology. It has been the long-held belief that in a pure problem-based learning 20 Sue Baptiste, Patricia Solomon 2 environment, the learning is accomplished through the horizontal meshing of various areas of knowledge and information that through the integration of these sciences and bodies of knowledge, students can gain the understanding they require by using real life situations as springboards for integration and synthesis of all inputs.Consequently, recent efforts were expended to develop the Occupational Therapy Personal Progress breed (OTPPI), a tool that was developed from the experience of the undergraduate medical program over the past few years (Blake et al. 1996 Cunnington 2001). The OTPPI focuses on foundational knowledge that our students need in order to become practicing occupational therapists. It is not a test of the a pplication of that knowledge in practice. The examination consists of 90 multiple-choice questions developed with the expectation that a star student would be able to answer by the time of graduation. There are three main domains included in each examination biology (this includes anatomy, physiology, and so on ), amicable sciences (this includes psychology, sociology, anthropology, etc. ), and research (this includes statistics, research methods, ethics, etc. ).The partition of each examination is 40 percent biology, 40 percent kind science, and 20 percent research. The examination is generated each term and students in both years have the same examination, with the expectation that the students in second year will achieve a higher result than those in the first year. Students take up a diminutive report with their scores and a visibility of how they have progressed over time. They are provided with information about their total score as well as a breakdown on each of the thr ee domains. They also receive a zone score, which is an mark of how well they have performed on the test in comparison to the other members of the class.Students in the yellow or red zones whitethorn want to review their scores in more detail and make learning plans to address gaps that may have been identified through the examination. This tool is designed as a self-assessment measure, the individual results of which are cognise only to each student. We have made a conscious choice that results are not used in the summative evaluation of the students, and are intended to provide the learners with a sense of how they are progressing in accumulating knowledge relative to the basic sciences of their discipline. The students are expected to use that information to set plans in place to address weaknesses (e. g. , through problem-based tutorials, individual assignments, etc. ).The OTPPI has been a draw and paper test so far, but steps are being interpreted to convert it to a web-base d format. While the occupational therapy program has undertaken this initiative on a pilot basis, initial responses would indicate that students are finding the process helpful to them, although this is very new at the time of publication. integration of Evidence-based Practice Skills into the Curricula. The integration of skills related to practicing in an evidence-based manner is seen to be critical to both programs. A detailed description of the models espouse by the occupational therapy and physiotherapy programs is found in Chapter 5. In both programs, there is a strong commitment to evidence-based practice as a central onstruct for the curriculum and a vivid partner for client-centered and problem-based principles. finish Since their inception, the masters entry-level programs in occupational therapy and physiotherapy have presented opportunities to revisit our history and legacy in health sciences education. In order to reflect on the overall process, the general steps for curriculum design offered by Wiers et al. (2002) will be revisited (see Table 2. 2). Chapter 2 Curriculum Development and Design 21 For us, the rationale for the curriculum was clear both from an internal and an external perspective, and the notion of forming a planning group was a natural approach to the task.Our profound commitment to involving our broad academic community was illustrated through the involvement of a wide range of individuals comprehend full-time, part-time, and sessional faculty members as well as members of the wider practice community. Such involvement was realized throughout the planning process and continues through such individuals representation on our Education, Curriculum and Admissions committees. The need to define clear general educational objectives for the curriculum was also recognized at a very archaeozoic stage. We found that being able to determine the goals and directions from the outset served to facilitate the planning that followed. Assess ing the educational needs of future students was assisted by our own knowledge concerning the entry-level competencies demanded by our professional regulatory colleges.Also, the connections we have with our practice communities and past graduates were invaluable in providing a background knowledge for determining the shifts necessary within the curriculum to fulfill practice expectations. Similarly, the same attentive reasoning was used to consider the differences of teaching and learning between undergraduate and graduate approaches to education. Applying general principles of problem-based learning to the curriculum was not a concern for us, given our long history of internalizing this philosophy. Specific difficulties arose when converting the undergraduate courses and assessment tools to the needs of a graduate program.Nevertheless, problem-based learning in many ways is a gift for this transition since it resembles closely the natural proclivities of graduate work smaller gr oups, self-directedness, learner autonomy, and a degree of freedom to determine learning directions. Structuring the curriculum and creating a blueprint became different experiences for physiotherapy and occupational therapy. As mentioned previously, while the planning processes looked ostensibly similar, the manner in which the final curricular models were derived was very different (see Tables 2. 3 and 2. 4). However, after the master models were created, the processes for elaborating the blueprints and constructing study units were again very similar.Methods of student assessment tended to remain grounded in the old(prenominal) processes and tools that we had developed across our history with problem-based learning. However, as each curricular element emerged throughout the planning (e. g. , evidence-based practice, ethics, clinical skills, fieldwork) so did innovative ways to enhance the student assessment processes that were already strong. Details of these innovations will be discussed in the book chapters relating to these specific areas. circumstance of the educational organization and curriculum management model required particular attention since our lines of accountability had shifted, with the Table 2. 4.Physiotherapy curricular framework Unit 1 2 3 4 5 6 Content theme Fundamentals of physiotherapy practice Fundamentals of musculoskeletal practice Fundamentals of cardiorespiratory and neurological practice Advanced neurological practice Community practice Integrated practice and professional transition 22 Sue Baptiste, Patricia Solomon 2 move to the School of Graduate Studies. devil slightly different models of governance emerged, with the Admissions direction being the only shared group between physiotherapy and occupational therapy. However, both governance models reflect a central group responsible and accountable for curriculum and another group that oversees general program functioning. Curricular evaluation remains an ongoing responsibili ty and expectation.Chapter 13 provides a particular model for curriculum evaluation that was used by the occupational therapy program, the Program system of logic Model. However, there are many ways in which faculty members can adjudge a clear image of what makes up a curriculum and what indicators are critical to evaluate for the success of the program overall. The three years of planning and launching the new curricula at McMaster University were years of extremely enceinte work, high energy and output. As we see each student cohort graduate, and receive feedback concerning our students and graduates in practice settings, we feel heartened that we appear to be on the right track. We know, however, that curriculum development is an ongoing process.